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The Human Body:
An Orientation
Human Anatomy & Physiology, Sixth Edition
Elaine N. Marieb
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
1
ANATOMY - the study of the structures of an organism
A. Gross Anatomy - structures as seen by unaided eye
B. Histology ("tissues" "to study") - structures that can be seen with the
microscope such as cells and tissues
1. Cytology - study of cell structure/function
C. Developmental Anatomy - study of the anatomy of the developing
organism
1. Embryology - fertilization to third month of fetus
D. Systemic Anatomy - study of individual organ system
E. Regional Anatomy - study of structures in particular area
F. Pathology ("disease" "to study") - study of changes in structure due to
disease/injury
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Physiology
Focuses on the functions of the body, often at the
cellular or molecular level
 Renal physiology – kidney function
 Neurophysiology – workings of the nervous system
 Cardiovascular physiology – operation of the heart
and blood vessels
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Principle of Complementarity
A. Anatomy - study of structure
Physiology - study of function
B. Structure determines Function
Function depends upon Structure
C. Charles Darwin - "Origin of the Species" (1858)
Changes in structure affect function: basis of
evolution of all organisms
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Levels of Organization of Organisms
A. atoms (elements of periodic table)
B. molecules (proteins, lipids, carbohydrates, nucleic acid)
C. cells (epithelial, bone, muscle, nervous)
D. tissues (epithelial, connective, muscular)
E. organ (stomach, heart, brain, lung)
F. organ system (muscular, skeletal, digestive, nervous)
G. whole organism (each different species)
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Levels of Structural Organization
Smooth muscle cell
Molecules
2 Cellular level
Cells are made up of molecules
Atoms
Smooth
muscle
tissue
3 Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of
cells
1 Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules
Heart
Cardiovascular
system
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue
Connective
tissue
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
different types of tissues
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Blood
vessels
Blood
vessel
(organ)
6 Organismal level
The human organism is
made up of many organ
systems
5 Organ system level
Organ systems consist of different organs
that work together closely
Figure 1.1
Summary of Common prefixes and suffixes
1. Prefixes Indicating Location, Direction, and Tendency

Prefix
Meaning
Example_________________

Ab-
from, away
abnormal - away from normal

Ad-
to, near, toward
adrenal - near the kindey

Ante-
before
antepartum - before delivery of child

Brady-
slow
bradycardia - slow heart beat

Brev-
short
brevity - in a short time

Circum-
around
circumocular - around the eye

Co-
with, together
coordinate - work together

Con-
with, together
congenital - with birth

Contra-
against
contraindicated - not indicated

Counter-
against
counterirritant - against irritation

Dis-
apart from
disarticulated - taking a joint apart

Ect-
outside
ectonuclear - outside the nucleus

End-
within
endocardium - lining inner heart
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
Epi-
upon, on top of
epidermis - upon the skin

Ex-
out from
exhalation - breathe out

Hypo-
under, lower
hypodermic - under the skin

Hyper-
above, higher
hyperactive - higher level activity

Im-
not
immature - not mature

In-
not
incurable - not curable

Infra-
under, below
infrapatellar - below the knee

Peri-
around
pericardium - sac around the heart

Post-
after
postmortem - after death

Pre-
before
prenatal - before birth

Pro-
before
prognosis - a fore-knowing

Super-
above, on top
superciliary - above the eyebrow

Supra-
above, on top
suprapubic - above the pubic bone

Sym-
with, together
symphony - sounds played together

Syn-
with, together
synarthrosis - union of bones

Trans-
through, across
transurethral - through the urethra
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
2. Prefixes Indicating Number and Measurement

Prefix
Meaning
Example____________________________

Uni-
one
unicycle - one wheel

Mono-
one
mononuclear - one nucleus

Bi-
two
bilateral - two sides

Bin-
two
binocular - two eyes

Di-
two
dicephalic - two heads

Ter-
three
tertiary - the third part or stage

Tri-
three
trilobar - three lobes

Quadr-
four
quadriceps - muscle w four heads

Tetra-
four
tetracylcine - four-ringed molecule

Poly-
many
polydactyly - many digits (more than 5)

Oligo-
few
oligosaccharide - few sugars linked together

Micro-
small
microscope - equipment to view small things

Macro-
large
macrophage - large eating cell

Mega-
great, enormous
megadontia - huge teeth
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3. Prefixes Denoting Organs, Structures, Things

Prefix
Meaning
Example____________________________

Acoust-
sound
acoustics - quality of sound

Aud-
ear, hear
audition - to hear someone

Abdomin/o
abdomen
abdominal - relating to the abdomen

Acr/o
extremity, limbs
acromegaly - abnormally large limbs

Blast/o
early, embryonic
blastocyte - embryonic type cell

Aden/o
gland
adenopathy - disease of a gland

Angi/o
vessel
angiogram - picture of a vessel

Arthr/o
joint
arthritis - inflammation of a joint

Bucc/o
cheek
buccolabial - relating to cheek and lip

Cardi/o
heart
cardiology - study of the heart

Corp-
body
corpus callosum - connecting body

Chondr/o
cartilage
chondrocyte - cartilage cell

Cephal/o
head
cephalic - relating to the head

Cyst/o
bladder
cystoscopy - view of the bladder

Cyt/o
cell
cytokinesis - cell movement
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Dent/o
tooth
dental - referring to teeth

Dermat/o
skin
dermatitis - skin inflammation

Duoden/o
duodenum
duodenal - relating to the duodenum

Encephal/o
brain
encephalitis - brain inflammation

Gastr/o
stomach
gastrointestinal - stomach and intestine

Hepat/o
liver
hepatitis - liver inflammation

Gloss/o
tongue
glossopathy - tongue disease

Glute-
buttocks
gluteus minimus - small buttocks muscle

Laryng/o
larynx
laryngitis - larynx inflammation

My/o
muscle
myocardium - heart muscle
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings

Nephr/o
kidney
nephrologist - one who studies kidneys

Neur/o
nerve
neurosurgeon - surgeon of nervous system

Oste/o
bone
osteocyte - bone cell

Ot/o
ear
otitis media - middle ear inflammation

Ophthalm/o
eye
exophthalmos - eyes bulge out

Path/o
disease
pathological - relating to disease

Pneumon/o
lung
pneumonia - condition of the lung

Rhin/o
nose
rhinoplasty - reform the nose

Stomat/o
mouth, opening
stomatitis - mouth inflammation

Thorac/o
chest or thorax
thoracocentesis - puncture of the thorax
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
4. Suffixes Denoting Relations, Conditions, and Agents

Suffix
Meaning
Example____________________________

-ac
related to
cardiac - related to the heart

-ious
related to
contagious - communicable by contact

-ic
related to
pyloric - related to pyloric valve of stomach

-ism
condition
mutism - condition of being mute

-osis
condition
scoliosis - S-shaped condition of backbone

-tion
condition
constipation - constant blockage condition

-ist
agent (a person)
opthalmologist - eye doctor

-or
agent
operator

-er
agent
examiner

-ician
agent
physician
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
5. Suffixes Used for Surgical and Operative Terminology

Suffix
Meaning
Example____________________________

-centesis
to puncture
amniocentesis - puncture the amnion (fluid)

-ectomy
to cut out and remove
appendectomy - cut out & remove appendix

-ostomy
to cut and form opening
colostomy - opening to drain the colon

-otomy
to cut or slice
tracheotomy - cut the trachea

-pexy
to fix or repair
gastropexy - repair the stomach

-plasty
to reform or repair
rhinoplasty - reform the nose

-rraphy
to suture, sew
ateriorraphy - suture an artery

-scopy
to view
otoscope - instrument to view ear
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
6. Other Suffixes Used in Anatomy

Suffix
Meaning
Example____________________________

-algia
pain
neuralgia - nerve pain

-cide
kill or destroy
germicide - substance that kills germs

-emia
of the blood
cholesterolemia - cholesterol in the blood

-gram
writing or record
electrocardiogram - record of heart action

-graph
recording instrument
electrocardiograph - records the heart

-itis
inflammation
appendicitis - appendix inflammation

-ology
the study of
ophthalmology - study of the eye

-oma
tumor
lymphoma - tumor of lymphatics

-orrhea
flow
menorrhea - flow during menstruation

-malacia
soft
osteomalacia - bone softening

-phasia
speech
dysphasia - slurred or blunted speech

-phobia
fear
arachnophobia - fear of spiders
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Start Reading and Studying today!
Learn your prefixes and suffixes!!!!!
It will make learning anatomy much easier!!!!
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Anatomical Position
Subject stands erect with
feet flat on the ground
and palms facing
forward
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Figure 1.7a
Directional Terms
1. superior (cephalic) : inferior (caudal)
2. anterior (ventral) : posterior (dorsal)
3. medial : lateral
4. ipsilateral (same side) : contralateral (opposite)
5. proximal : distal
6. superficial : deep
7. parietal : visceral
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Directional Terms
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Table 1.1
Directional Terms
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Table 1.1
Regional Terms: Anterior View
 Axial – head,
neck, and trunk
 Appendicular –
appendages or
limbs
 Specific regional
terminology
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Figure 1.7a
Regional Terms: Posterior View
Figure 1.7b
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Body Planes
1. sagittal - divides into right and left parts
a. midsagittal - right down the middle
b. parasagittal - away from the midline
2. frontal (coronal) - divides anterior & posterior
3. horizontal (transverse) - divide sup. & inferior
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Body Planes
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Figure 1.8
Body Cavities
1. Dorsal Body Cavity
a. cranial cavity (brain)
b. vertebral cavity (spinal cord)
2. Ventral Body Cavity (viscera - organs found here)
a. thoracic cavity
i. pleural cavity (space separating the parietal pleura
and visceral pleura of lungs - like balloon
pushed in with fist)
ii. mediastinum - all contents of thoracic cavity
except the lungs (e.g. heart, esophagus, trachea, major vessels)
b. abdominopelvic cavity
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Body Cavities
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Figure 1.9a
Body Cavities
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Figure 1.9b
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
Parietal serosa lines internal body walls
Visceral serosa covers the internal organs

Serous fluid separates the serosae
Major serous membranes of the body:
pleura – around the lungs
pericardium – around the heart
peritoneum – around digestive organs
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Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
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Figure 1.10a
Ventral Body Cavity Membranes
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Figure 1.10b
Abdominopelvic Regions
 Umbilical
 Epigastric
 Hypogastric
 Right and left iliac or
inguinal
 Right and left lumbar
 Right and left
hypochondriac
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Figure 1.11a
Organs of the Abdominopelvic Regions
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Figure 1.11b
Abdominopelvic Quadrants
 Right upper
 Left upper
 Right lower
 Left lower
Figure 1.12
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Medical Imaging Techniques
A. Classic X-ray : radiography (radiograph)
1. good for dense structures (bones and tumors)
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
B. Computed Tomography (CT)
[or Computerized Axial Tomography (CAT) Scanning]
1. employs X-ray technology to create clearer image
2. tumors, aneurysms, kidney stones, gallstones, etc.
3. Xenon CT – traces blood flow in the brain
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
C. Dynamic Spatial Reconstruction (DSR)
1. employs CT X-ray technology to see organ action/motion
2. measures movement of the heart, lungs, vessels;
can indicate abnormality/deformity in structure;
tissue damage
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
D. Digital Subtraction Angiography (DSA)
1. takes X-ray picture before and after
administration of contrast substance to the
vessels
2. used to study vessels of the brain and heart to
help prevent strokes and heart attacks
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
E. Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
1. uses radioisotopes such as Carbon-11,
Nitrogen-13
2. effects of drugs, site of molecules, cancer cells
3. very good at studying glucose absorption by
neurons in the brain during certain tasks
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Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
F. Ultrasound (US)
1. uses high frequency sound waves
2. gall stones, pelvic organs, blood flow, fetal
development
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Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
G. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
1. uses magnetic properties of molecules, not X-rays
2. differentiates tissues based on water content
3. presence of cancer cells, chemical disease of brain,
spinal cord disorders, blood flow problems,
injury after stroke, measure effects of drugs on
tissues
4. used chiefly on soft tissues such as brain & heart
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Organ Systems of the Body
Integumentary system
 Forms the external body covering
 Composed of the skin, sweat glands, oil glands,
hair, and nails
 Protects deep tissues from injury and synthesizes
vitamin D
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Organ Systems of the Body
Skeletal system
 Composed of bone, cartilage, and ligaments
 Protects and supports body organs
 Provides the framework for muscles
 Site of blood cell formation
 Stores minerals
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Organ Systems of the Body
Muscular system
 Composed of muscles and tendons
 Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression
 Maintains posture
 Produces heat
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Organ Systems of the Body
Nervous system
 Composed of the brain, spinal column, and nerves
 Is the fast-acting control system of the body
 Responds to stimuli by activating muscles and
glands
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Organ Systems of the Body
Cardiovascular system
 Composed of the heart and blood vessels
 The heart pumps blood
 The blood vessels transport blood throughout the
body
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Organ Systems of the Body
Lymphatic system
 Composed of red bone marrow, thymus, spleen,
lymph nodes, and lymphatic vessels
 Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels and
returns it to blood
 Disposes of debris in the lymphatic stream
 Houses white blood cells involved with immunity
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Organ Systems of the Body
Respiratory system
 Composed of the nasal cavity, pharynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
 Keeps blood supplied with oxygen and removes
carbon dioxide
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Organ Systems of the Body
Digestive system
 Composed of the oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus, and
liver
 Breaks down food into absorbable units that enter
the blood
 Eliminates indigestible foodstuffs as feces
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Organ Systems of the Body
Urinary system
 Composed of kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the body
 Regulates water, electrolyte, and pH balance of the
blood
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Organ Systems of the Body
Male reproductive system
 Composed of prostate gland, penis, testes, scrotum,
and ductus deferens
 Main function is the production of offspring
 Testes produce sperm and male sex hormones
 Ducts and glands deliver sperm to the female
reproductive tract
Copyright © 2004 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Organ Systems of the Body
Female reproductive system
 Composed of mammary glands, ovaries, uterine
tubes, uterus, and vagina
 Main function is the production of offspring
 Ovaries produce eggs and female sex hormones
 Remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization
and development of the fetus
 Mammary glands produce milk to nourish the
newborn
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