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CHAPTER 2
Grammars
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-1
Background
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-2
artificial intelligence
communities
computational linguistics
limited domain only
 engineering
communities
acoustical
speech recognition system
“merry” vs. “very”
“pan” vs. “ban”

Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-3
“Please hand me the ??? ”
“The choice you made was ??? good.”
他
正
在
讀
毒
書
･extract the most likely words from signal
･decide their probabilities using information from
surrounding words
NLU community:
parsing, interpretation, …
SR community:
statistical techniques, ...
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-4
Morphology & knowledge of words
analysis of written language:
Morphological analyzer
 morphology
structure of words
Parser
 syntax
structure of sentences
Semantic interpreter
 semantics
meaning of individual sentences
 pragmatics
how sentences relate to each other
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-5
Morphological Analyzer



word (lexical item)
dictionary (lexicon)
morphological analyzer
– apply morphological rule to finding the roots of
words, e.g., going  go, cats  cat
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-6
Part of speech tagger
part- of- speech (lexical category) : a set of
words having similar syntactic properties
Part of speech (symbol)
Example
noun (noun)
dog, equation, concerts
pronoun (pro)
I, you, it, they, them
possessive (pos)
my, your
verb (verb)
is, touch, went, remitted
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-7
Part of speech (symbol)
Example
adjective (adj)
red, large, remiss
determiner (det)
the, a , some
proper noun ( prop)
Alice, Romulus
conjunction (conj)
and, but, since
preposition (prep)
in, to, into
preposition (prep)
in, to, into
auxiliary verb (aux)
be, have
modal verb (modal)
will, can must, should
adverb (adv)
closely, quickly
wh-word (wh)
who, what, where
final punctuation (fpunc)
.?!
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-8
Tag Set



粗
細(Academia Sinica Balanced Corpus )
Tag mapping
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Grammar-9
Words’ Syntactic Functions





Nouns refer to entities in the world like people,
animals and things
Determiners describe the particular reference of a
noun
Adjectives describe the properties of nouns
Verbs are used to describe actions, activities and
states
Adverbs modify a verb in the same way as
adjectives modify nouns
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-10
Words’ Syntactic Functions


Prepositions are typically small words that
express spatial or time relationships. Prepositions
can also be used as particles to create phrasal
verbs (e.g., add up)
Conjunctions and complementizers link two
words, phrases or clauses
– A complementizer is a conjunction which marks a
complement clause.
– I know that he is here.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-11
Features
number, person, ...
Singular
Plural
1st person
I, me, mine
we, us, ours
2nd person
you, yours
you, yours
3rd person
she, him, its
they, them,
theirs
use of features
grammatical checking
(subject-verb agreement, ...)
The dogs eat. The dog eats.
semantic checking
PP-attachment
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The hole that had been drilled
by the woman in the wrench
turned out to be very useful
Grammar-12
Syntax and Context-Free Grammars syntactic structure
“In the hotel the fake property was sold to visitors.”
×
s-maj
(major
sentence)
s
vp
pp
pp
np
np
prep det noun det adj noun
np
aux verb prep noun fpunc
in the hotel the fake property was sold
Hsin-Hsi Chen
to
visitors .
Grammar-13
Grammar:
specification of permitted structures in a language
Context-Free Grammars (CFGS)




a set of terminal symbols
(words & punctuation)
a set of non-terminal symbols
(pos & syntactic category, e.g., np, vp)
start symbol
rewrite rules
non terminal
(terminal| non-terminal)
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-14
P
a
r
t
(a)
major sentence
s-maj
s fpunc
s
np vp
vp
verb
np
det noun
P
a
r
t
(b)
ambiguous grammar
vp
verb np
noun
vp
verb np np
verb
np
det noun noun noun
np
noun
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det
noun
verb
fpunc
the
dog
ate
.
salespeople
sold
biscuits
Grammar-15

ambiguous
“Salespeople sold the dog biscuits.”
s-maj
s
vp
np
np
noun
Salespeople
Hsin-Hsi Chen
verb
the
noun
noun
sold
the
dog
biscuits
transitive verb
fpunc
.
Grammar-16
s-maj
s
vp
np
np
noun
Salespeople
np
verb
the
noun
noun
sold
the
dog
biscuits
fpunc
.
Ditransitive verb
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-17


chomsky-normal form
non-terminal terminal
non-terminal non-terminal non-terminal
X theory(Jackendoff)
X’’’
specifier
X’’
X’
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X`
X:v, n, ...
modifier
argument
Grammar-18
multiplying out features
(cf. unification- based method)
s
agree- s
ment s
Hsin-Hsi Chen
np vp number: singular or plural
np singular vp singular
np plural vp plural
Grammar-19
Local and Non-Local Dependencies



A local dependency is a dependency between two
words expressed within the same syntactic rule
A non-local dependency is an instance in which
two words can be syntactically dependent even
though they occur far apart in a sentence (e.g.,
subject-verb agreement; long-distance
dependencies such as wh-extraction).
Non-local phenomena are a challenge for certain
statistical NLP approaches (e.g., n-grams) that
model local dependencies.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-20
Semantic Roles



A semantic role is the underlying relationship that a participant
has with the main verb in a clause.
Semantic case, thematic role, theta role (generative grammar),
and deep case (case grammar)
Most commonly, noun phrases are arguments of verbs. These
arguments have semantic roles: the agent of an action, the
patient and other roles such as the instrument or the goal.
– John (agent) hit Bill (patient). vs. Bill (patient) was hit by John (agent).


In English, these semantic roles correspond to the notions of
subject and object.
But things are complicated by the notions of direct and indirect
object, active and passive voice.
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Grammar-21

Agent (施事者): a person or thing who is the doer of an event.
– The boy ran down the street.

Patient (受事者): the surface object of the verb in a sentence.
– He opened the door.

Instrument (工具格): an inanimate thing that an agent uses to
implement an event.
– The cook cut the cake with a knife.

Goal (目標): thing toward which an action is directed
– He threw the book at me.

Beneficiary (受益): a referent which is advantaged or
disadvantaged by an event.
– John sold the car for a friend.


More roles and examples 
Semantic Role Labeling
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-22
Subcategorization




Different verbs can relate different numbers of
entities: transitive versus intransitive verbs.
Tightly related verb arguments are called
complements but less tightly related ones are called
adjuncts. Prototypical examples of adjuncts tell us
time, place, or manner of the action or state
described by the verb.
Verbs are classified according to the type of
complements they permit. This called
subcategorization. Subcategorizations allow to
capture syntactic as well as semantic regularities.
Academic Sinica Dictionary (Format, Sample )
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-23
Chinese PropBank ()

[arg0我][argm-adv已經][rel打][arg1電話][arg2給斯恩特]
[arg1這些算盤][arg0 產業界自己][rel打]的[argm-ext最精]
[arg1 鮑薩]被[arg0 泰森的鐵拳][rel打]得[arg2 爬不起來]

[arg0 他][argm-tmp晚上]則到體育場[rel打][arg1 籃球]

More examples 1-4937 ()


Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-24
Semantics



Semantics is the study of the meaning of words,
constructions, and utterances
Semantics can be divided into two parts: lexical
semantics and combination semantics
Lexical semantics:
–
–
–
–


上下位：hypernymy (上義關係) vs. hyponymy (下義關係)
antonymy (反義關係) vs. Synonymy(同義詞)
meronymy/holonymy(部分-整体/材料-實體/成員-集體)
homonymy(同音異義) vs. polysemy(一字多義 )
Compositionality: the meaning of the whole often
differs from the meaning of the parts
Idioms correspond to cases where the compound phrase
means something completely different from itsGrammar-25
parts
Hsin-Hsi Chen
hypernym (上義關係)
The generic term used to designate a whole class of specific
instances. Y is a hypernym of X if X is a (kind of) Y .
hyponym (下義關係)
The specific term used to designate a member of a class. X is a
hyponym of Y if X is a (kind of) Y .
holonym (部分-整体/材料-實體/成員-集體)
The name of the whole of which the meronym names a part. Y is a
holonym of X if X is a part of Y .
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-26
Pragmatics



Pragmatics is the area of studies that goes
beyond the study of the meaning of a
sentence and tries to explain what the
speaker really is expressing
Understand the scope of quantifiers, speech
acts, discourse analysis, anaphoric relations
The resolution of anaphoric relations is
crucial to the task of information extraction
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-27
Scope of Quantifiers








每個學生都買了一本書
有一本書每個學生都買了
有一個學生不買所有的書
有一個學生所有的書都不買
不是所有的書都有一個學生買
沒有一個學生買了所有的書
所有的書都有一個學生不買
所有的書都沒有一個學生買
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-28
Speech Act Examples
Utterance
Speech Act
Chunked Semantic Concepts
U 我想要掛眼科門診。(I want
to register outpatient service of
ophthalmology department)
Elaborate-fact
(DEPARTMENT_TYPE)
(SERVICE_TYPE) (PERSON) (WANT)
(REGISTER)
S 請問要在總院看還是公館分
部看？(Would you like to go to
main hospital or Gong-Gwen
branch?)
Request-ref
(BRANCH_NAME1)
(BRANCH_NAME2) (REQUEST)
(WANT) (AT) (SEE_DOC) (QWORD)
(SEE_DOC)
U 總院。(The main hospital)
Answer-ref
(BRANCH_NAME)
S 請問您是第一次到台大看診
嗎。(Is this your first time
consulting a doctor at NTU
Hospital?)
Request-if
(GENERAL_NUM) (REQUEST)(YES)
(COME_TIME) (COME)(HERE)
(SEE_DOC) (GROUND)
U 不是。(No.)
Answer-if
(NO)
S 您掛的是眼科薛琴醫生三月
二十九日十號。(You have
registered Dr. Shue-Ching on
March 29.)
Elaborate-fact
(DEPARTMENT_TYPE)
(DOCTOR_NAME) (DATE_VALUE)
(PERSON) (REGISTER)(YES)
(DOCTOR)
U 好了。(OK.)
Accept
(YES)
Anaphoric Relations

Anaphora vs. Co-Reference
– Anaphora
例一 張 三 是 老 師, 他 1 教 學 很 認 真, 同 時, 他 2 也 是 一 個 好 爸 爸。
例二 現 在 的 氣 溫 是 攝 氏 3 0 度 。
– 同指涉包括
• Type/Instance: “老師”/“張三”, “一個好爸
爸”/“張三”
• Function/Value: “現在的氣溫”/“攝氏 30 度”
• NP 的同指涉關係: “一隻小花貓”/“那隻貓”
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-30
Discourse Analysis


1a: 佛羅倫斯哪個博物館在1993年的爆炸事件中受到破
壞？
1b: 這個事件哪一天發生？
– 問句1b「這個事件」，指的是問句1a「1993年的爆炸事件」

1c: 哪些展覽室受到牽連？
– 問句1c中「展覽室」，指的是1a的答句「某個佛羅倫斯博物館」
的展覽室

1d: 有多少人被殺？
– 問句1d中的「人」，是問句1a「1993年的爆炸事件」被殺的人

1e: 這些人來自哪裡？
– 問句1e中的「這些人」指的是問句1d提到被殺的人

1f: 爆炸物的量有多少？
– 問句1f中的「爆炸物」是問句1a「1993年的爆炸事件」中的爆
炸物
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-31
Grammars
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-32

Grammar as knowledge representation.
a way to represent certain aspects of what
we know about a language

General criteria of grammar formalism
– linguistic naturalness,
– mathematical power, and
– computational effectiveness.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-33

NL employs the following knowledge.
– A representation for syntactic categories or
‘parts of speech’.
– A data type for words (and hence a lexicon,
dictionary or word list ).
– A data type for syntactic rules.
– A data type for syntactic structures.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-34

Words, rules and structures
– Lexicon: associate each word with its properties
e.g. syntactic category (verb, noun, ...)
subcategory (transitive, intransitive, ...)
morphological information,
semantic information.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-35
PATR notation (words)
(Ex 1) Word paid:
<cat> = V.
Syntactic category
(Ex 2) Word paid:
<cat> = V
<tense> = past past tense
<arg1> = NP. transitive
A feature description is always partial.

Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-36

Phrase structure rule
a particular syntactic category(LHS) is
composed of (RHS).
S
NP VP (a sentence consists of noun
phrase followed by a verb
phrase)
VP V NP (a verb phrase consists of a verb
followed by a noun phrase )
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-37
Phrase structure rules introduce lexical items.
V paid ===> word paid:
<cat> = V
Example. Grammar 1
Word Dr Chan:

Rule {simple sentence formation}
S NP VP
Rule {transitive verb}
VP V NP
Rule {intransitive verb}
VP V.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
<cat > = NP.
Word nurses:
<cat > = NP.
Word MediCenter:
<cat > = NP.
Word Patients:
<cat > = NP.
Word died:
<cat> = V.
Word employed:
<cat> = V.
Grammar-38


Context-free phrase structure grammars
(CF-PSGS)
LHS: category
regardless
RHS: category or symbol.
of context
Functions of a grammar
– (1) Define the sets of grammatical words in a
language.
– (2) Associate one or more structures with each
grammatical string.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-39
S
NP
(1)
Representation of parsing trees
VP
MediCenter V
employed
NP
nurses
(2) [s, [np, ‘MediCenter’], [vp, [v, employed],[np, nurses]]]
(3) [s
[np
‘MediCenter’]
[vp
[v
employed]
[np
Grammar-40
Hsin-Hsi Chen
nurses]]]
(4) s (np(‘MediCenter’), vp(v(employed), np(nurses)))
How to evaluate a particular
grammar for a (fragment of a)
language?
(1) Does it undergenerate?
(2) Does it overgenerate?
(3) Does it assign appropriate structures to
the strings that it generates?
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-41
undergenerate:

There are some syntactically well-formed
expressions to which grammar assigns no
structure.
(undergeneration is not necessarily a
problem if the goal is to produce a
language.)
NL
grammar
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-42
overgenerate:

Grammar legitimates strings that cannot be
constructed as grammatical expressions of
the language in question.
(Overgeneration is not necessarily a
problem if the goal is to recognize or
understand well-formed language)
NL
grammar
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-43
Subcategorization and the use of
features

*Dr. Chan died patients.

*MediCenter employed.
died: intransitive
employed: transitive
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-44

Example. Grammar 2
Word died:
Word and:
Rule {simple sentence formation}
<cat > = V
<cat> = C
S NP VP
<arg1> = 0 Word or:
Rule {intransitive verb}
Word recovered:
<cat> = C
VP V
<cat> = V
<V arg 1>=0
<arg1> = 0
Rule {single complement verbs}
Word slept:
VP V X
<cat> = V
<V arg 1>=<X cat>
<arg1>= 0
Rule {coordination of identical categories} Word employed:
X0 X1 C X2
<cat> = V
<X0 cat>=<X1 cat>
<arg1> = NP
<X0 cat>=<X2 cat>
Word paid:
<X0 arg 1>=<X1 arg 1>
<cat> = V
<X0 arg 1>=<X2 arg 1>
<arg1> = NP
Word nursed:
<cat> = V
<arg1> = NP Grammar-45
Hsin-Hsi Chen

Examples
Nurses died.
*Nurses died patients.
*MediCenter employed.
MediCenter employed nurses.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-46

Phrase structure tree for sentence with
conjunction
S
S
C
NP
Dr Chen
VP
V
and
NP
employed nurses
S
NP
VP
nurses
VP C VP
V
died
Hsin-Hsi Chen
or VP
recovered
Grammar-47

Grammar 2 admits all of the following
examples:
Nurses died.
Nurses died and patients recovered.
Nurses died and patients recovered and Dr Chan slept and
MediCenter employed nurses.
Nurses died and patients recovered and Dr Chan slept and
MediCenter employed nurses and …

Grammar 3 = Grammar 2 +
Rule {prepositional phrases}
PP
P X:
<P arg1> =<X cat>
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-48

Example: Lexicon3
Word approved:
<cat>=V
<arg1>=PP
Word disapproved:
<cat>=V
<arg1>=PP
Word appeared:
<cat>=V
<arg1>=AP
Word seemed:
<cat>=V
<arg1>=AP
Word had:
<cat>=V
<arg1>=VP
Word believed:
Hsin-Hsi Chen <cat>=V
<arg1>=PP
Word thought:
<cat>=V
<arg1>=S
Word of:
<cat>=P
<arg1>=NP
Word fit:
<cat>=AP
Word competent:
<Cat>=AP
Word well-qualified:
<cat>=AP
Grammar-49

Grammar 3 admits additional examples like:
Nurse thought Dr Chan seemed competent.
Dr Chan appeared well-qualified and disapproved
of MediCenter.
Patients had believed nurses thought Dr Chan had
slept.
sentential or verb phrase complements of a verb
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-50

Long-distance dependencies
wh-question, relative clause, …
“Whom did Freg give the ball to e?”
dependency
“Whom does Alice believe Freg wants to give
the ball to e?”
dependency
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Grammar-51

Unbounded dependencies-no limit on the amount of intervening
material that can occur between displaced
constituent and the empty constituent.
cf. ATN HOLD list. (1971)
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-52

Slash categories
s/np, vp/np, …
s
wh s/np
s/np
vp
s/np
np vp/np
vp
verb np pp/np
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-53

Example: Rules for Grammar 4
– x/y: a category x0 whose cat is x and whose
slash is y.
<x0 cat> = x, <x0 slash> = y.
– Interpretation: an expression of category x/y
an expression of category x from which
an expression of category y is missing.
– e.g.
S/NP: a sentence (or clause) that has got
a noun phrase missing.
VP/PP: a verb phrase that is missing a
prepositional phrase.
Grammar-54
Hsin-Hsi Chen

Example. Phrase structure tree with slash categories
Dr. Chan, nurses thought MediCenter had employed …
S
NP
S/NP
Dr Chan NP
nurses
VP/NP
V
S/NP
thought NP
VP/NP
MediCenter V
had
VP/NP
V
employed
NP/NP
-
Transfer of information about a missing category from mother
to daughter.
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-55
Rule {simple sentence formation}
S  NP VP:
<S slash>=<VP slash>
<NP slash>=0.
Rule {intransitive verb}
VP  V:
<V arg1>=0
<V slash>=0
<VP slash>=0.
Rule{single complement verbs}
VP  V X:
<V arg1>=<X cat>
<V slash>=0
<VP slash>=<X slash>.
Rule{prepositional phrases}
PP P X:
<P arg1>=<X cat>
<P slash>= 0
Hsin-Hsi Chen
<PP slash>=<X slash>.
Rule X0  X1 X2
<X0 cat>=S
<X1 cat>=NP
<X2 cat>=VP
<X0 slash>=<X2 slash>
<X1 slash>=0
 S/Y NP VP/Y
 Rule
S/S NP VP/S.
Rule
S/NP NP VP/NP.
Rule
S/VP NP VP/VP.
Rule
S/AP NP VP/AP .
Grammar-56
Rule {coordination}
Rule {slash elimination}
PP  X1 C X2:
X0 :
<X0 cat>=<X0 slash>
<X0 cat>=<X1 cat>
<X0 empty>=yes.
<X0 cat>=<X2 cat>
<C slash>=0
X/X .
<X0 slash>=<X1 slash>
<X0 slash>=<X2 slash>
<X0 arg1>=<X1 arg1>
<X0 arg1>=<X2 arg1> .
Rule{topicalization}
 S S S/X
A sentence can consist of some category
X0  X1 X2:
followed by a sentence which is missing an
<X0 cat>=S
expression of that category.
<X1 empty>=no
MediCenter, nurses disapproved of _.
<X2 cat>=S
Of MediCenter, nurses disapproved _.
<X2 slash>=<X1 cat> Well-qualified, Dr Chan had seemed _.
<X2 empty>=no
Grammar-57
Hsin-Hsi Chen
<X0 slash>=<X1 slash>.
Classes of grammars and languages
Recursively enumerable sets (type 0)
Context-sensitive languages (type 1)
Indexed language
Chomsky hierarchy of languages
Context-free languages (type 2)
Finite-state languages (type 3)
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-58
Context-free grammars and languages

CF-PSGS: exist high-efficiency algorithms
for recognizing and parsing CFLs.
types
CF-PSGs
RTNs
factors
Hsin-Hsi Chen
power
equivalent
semantics
declarative procedural
iteration
recursion
yes
Grammar-59

Indexed grammars and languages
anbncn problem
<X cat>=S,
<X stack top>=a,
<X stack stack top>=a,
<X stack stack stack top>=z.
cat:s
stack: top:a
X
stack: top:a
stack:[top:z ]
stack:?
Hsin-Hsi Chen
Grammar-60

Grammar
Rule{push endmarker on to stack}
S  a A:
<A stack top>=z
<A stack stack>=<S stack>.
Rule {push ‘a ’ on to stack}
A0  a A1:
<A0 cat>=A
<A1 cat>=A
<A1 stack top >=a
<A1 stack stack >=<A0 stack>.
Rule {copy stack from A to B}
A B:
<A stack >=<B stack >.
Rule {pop ‘a’ off stack}
B0 b B1 c:
<B0 cat>=B
<B1 cat>=B
<B0 stack top>=a
<B0 stack stack>=<B1 stack>.
Rule {pop endmarker off stack}
B b c:
For
Hsin-Hsi<B
Chen
stack top>=z.

stack :


A
2


top : z  


stack : 1  

 cat A :

A1  stack :  top : a  



stack
:
2


3 
4  3
every n, there is a category x s.t.
Grammar-61
<x stackn top >=z