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Processes, Threads, Synchronization CS 519: Operating System Theory Computer Science, Rutgers University Fall 2013 Process Process = system abstraction for the set of resources required for executing a program = a running instance of a program = memory image + registers (+ I/O state) The stack + registers form the execution context Computer Science, Rutgers 2 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process Image Code Globals Stack Each variable must be assigned a storage class Global (static) variables Allocated in the global region at compiletime Local variables and parameters Allocated dynamically on the stack Heap Memory Computer Science, Rutgers Dynamically created objects Allocated from the heap 3 CS 519: Operating System Theory What About The OS Image? Recall that one of the function of an OS is to provide a virtual machine interface that makes programming the machine easier So, a process memory image must also contain the OS Code Globals Memory OS Stack Code Globals Heap Stack OS data space is used to store things like file descriptors for files being accessed by the process, status of I/O devices, etc. Heap Computer Science, Rutgers 4 CS 519: Operating System Theory What Happens When There Are More Than One Running Process? OS Code Globals Stack P0 Heap P1 P2 Computer Science, Rutgers 5 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process Control Block Each process has per-process state maintained by the OS Identification: process, parent process, user, group, etc. Execution contexts: threads Address space: virtual memory I/O state: file handles (file system), communication endpoints (network), etc. Accounting information For each process, this state is maintained in a process control block (PCB) This is just data in the OS data space Computer Science, Rutgers 6 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process Creation How to create a process? System call. In UNIX, a process can create another process using the fork() system call int pid = fork(); /* this is in C */ The creating process is called the parent and the new process is called the child The child process is created as a copy of the parent process (process image and process control structure) except for the identification and scheduling state Parent and child processes run in two different address spaces By default, there is no memory sharing Process creation is expensive because of this copying The exec() call is provided for the newly created process to run a different program than that of the parent Computer Science, Rutgers 7 CS 519: Operating System Theory System Call In Monolithic OS interrupt vector for trap instruction PC PSW in-kernel file system(monolithic OS) code for fork system call kernel mode trap iret user mode id = fork() Computer Science, Rutgers 8 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process Creation fork() code PCBs fork() exec() fork() Computer Science, Rutgers 9 CS 519: Operating System Theory Example of Process Creation Using Fork The UNIX shell is command-line interpreter whose basic purpose is for user to run applications on a UNIX system cmd arg1 arg2 ... argn Computer Science, Rutgers 10 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process Termination One process can wait for another process to finish using the wait() system call Can wait for a child to finish as shown in the example Can also wait for an arbitrary process if it knows its PID Can kill another process using the kill() system call What all happens when kill() is invoked? What if the victim process does not want to die? Computer Science, Rutgers 11 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process Swapping May want to swap out entire process Thrashing if too many processes competing for resources To swap out a process Suspend its execution Copy all of its information to backing store (except for PCB) To swap a process back in Copy needed information back into memory, e.g. page table, thread control blocks Restore state to blocked or ready Must check whether event(s) has (have) already occurred Computer Science, Rutgers 12 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process State Diagram ready (in memory) swap in swap out suspended (swapped out) Computer Science, Rutgers 13 CS 519: Operating System Theory Signals OS may need to “upcall” into user processes Signals UNIX mechanism to upcall when an event of interest occurs Potentially interesting events are predefined: e.g., segmentation violation, message arrival, kill, etc. When interested in “handling” a particular event (signal), a process indicates its interest to the OS and gives the OS a procedure that should be invoked in the upcall. Computer Science, Rutgers 14 CS 519: Operating System Theory Signals (Cont’d) When an event of interest occurs, the kernel handles the event first, then modifies the process‘ stack to look as if the process’ code made a procedure call to the signal handler. When the user process is scheduled next, it executes the handler first From the handler, the user process returns to where it was when the event occurred Computer Science, Rutgers 15 Handler B B A A CS 519: Operating System Theory Inter-Process Communication Most operating systems provide several abstractions for inter-process communication: message passing, shared memory, etc Communication requires synchronization between processes (i.e. data must be produced before it is consumed) Synchronization can be implicit (message passing) or explicit (shared memory) Explicit synchronization can be provided by the OS (semaphores, monitors, etc) or can be achieved exclusively in user-mode (if processes share memory) Computer Science, Rutgers 16 CS 519: Operating System Theory Message Passing Implementation kernel buffers kernel 1st copy 2nd copy process 1 x=1 send(process2, &X) X process 2 receive(process1,&Y) print Y Y two copy operations in a conventional implementation 17 Shared Memory Implementation kernel shared region process 1 X=1 X process 2 physical memory print Y Y no copying but synchronization is necessary 18 Inter-Process Communication More on shared memory and message passing later Synchronization after we talk about threads Computer Science, Rutgers 19 CS 519: Operating System Theory A Tree of Processes On A Typical UNIX System Computer Science, Rutgers 20 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process: Summary System abstraction – the set of resources required for executing a program (an instantiation of a program) Execution context Address space File handles, communication endpoints, etc. Historically, all of the above “lumped” into a single abstraction More recently, split into several abstractions Threads, address space, protection domain, etc. OS process management: Supports creation of processes and interprocess communication (IPC) Allocates resources to processes according to specific policies Interleaves the execution of multiple processes to increase system utilization Computer Science, Rutgers 21 CS 519: Operating System Theory Threads Thread of execution: stack + registers (including PC) Informally: where an execution stream is currently at in the program and the method invocation chain that brought the execution stream to the current place Example: A called B, which called C, which called B, which called C The PC should be pointing somewhere inside C at this point The stack should contain 5 activation records: A/B/C/B/C Process model discussed thus far implies a single thread Computer Science, Rutgers 22 CS 519: Operating System Theory Multi-Threading Why limit ourselves to a single thread? Think of a web server that must service a large stream of requests If only have one thread, can only process one request at a time What to do when reading a file from disk? Multi-threading model Each process can have multiple threads Each thread has a private stack Registers are also private All threads of a process share the code, the global data and heap Computer Science, Rutgers 23 CS 519: Operating System Theory Process Address Space Revisited OS OS Code Code Globals Globals Stack Stack Stack Heap Heap (a) Single-threaded address space (b) Multi-threaded address space Computer Science, Rutgers 24 CS 519: Operating System Theory Multi-Threading (cont) Implementation Each thread is described by a thread-control block (TCB) A TCB typically contains Thread ID Space for saving registers Pointer to thread-specific data not on stack Observation Although the model is that each thread has a private stack, threads actually share the process address space There’s no memory protection! Threads could potentially write into each other’s stack Computer Science, Rutgers 25 CS 519: Operating System Theory Posix Thread (Pthread) API _ thread creation and termination pthread_create(&tid,NULL,start_fn,arg); pthread_exit(status)’ _ _ _ thread join pthread_join(tid, &status); mutual exclusion pthread_mutex_lock(&lock); pthread_mutex_unlock(&lock); condition variable pthread_cond_wait(&c,&lock); pthread_cond_signal(&c); 26 Thread Creation PC SP thread_create() code PCBs TCBs thread_create() new_thread_starts_here stacks Computer Science, Rutgers 27 CS 519: Operating System Theory Context Switching Suppose a process has multiple threads, a uniprocessor machine only has 1 CPU, so what to do? In fact, even if we only had one thread per process, we would have to do something about running multiple processes … We multiplex the multiple threads on the single CPU At any instance in time, only one thread is running At some point in time, the OS may decide to stop the currently running thread and allow another thread to run This switching from one running thread to another is called context switching Computer Science, Rutgers 28 CS 519: Operating System Theory Diagram of Thread State Computer Science, Rutgers 29 CS 519: Operating System Theory Context Switching (cont) How to do a context switch? Save state of currently executing thread Copy all “live” registers to the thread control block Restore state of thread to run next Copy values of live registers from thread control block to registers When does context switching take place? Computer Science, Rutgers 30 CS 519: Operating System Theory Context Switching (cont) When does context switching occur? When the OS decides that a thread has run long enough and that another thread should be given the CPU Remember how the OS gets control of the CPU back when it is executing user code? When a thread performs an I/O operation and needs to block to wait for the completion of this operation To wait for some other thread Thread synchronization Computer Science, Rutgers 31 CS 519: Operating System Theory How Is the Switching Code Invoked? user thread executing clock interrupt PC modified by hardware to “vector” to interrupt handler user thread state is saved for later resume clock interrupt handler is invoked disable interrupt checking check whether current thread has run “long enough” if yes, post asynchronous software trap (AST) enable interrupt checking exit interrupt handler enter “return-to-user” code check whether AST was posted if not, restore user thread state and return to executing user thread; if AST was posted, call context switch code Why need AST? Computer Science, Rutgers 32 CS 519: Operating System Theory How Is the Switching Code Invoked? (cont) user thread executing system call to perform I/O user thread state is saved for later resume OS code to perform system call is invoked I/O operation started (by invoking I/O driver) set thread status to waiting move thread’s TCB from run queue to wait queue associated with specific device call context switching code Computer Science, Rutgers 33 CS 519: Operating System Theory Context Switching At entry to CS, the return address is either in a register or on the stack (in the current activation record) CS saves this return address to the TCB instead of the current PC To thread, it looks like CS just took a while to return! If the context switch was initiated from an interrupt, the thread never knows that it has been context switched out and back in unless it looking at the “wall” clock Computer Science, Rutgers 34 CS 519: Operating System Theory Context Switching (cont) Even that is not quite the whole story When a thread is switched out, what happens to it? How do we find it to switch it back in? This is what the TCB is for. System typically has A run queue that points to the TCBs of threads ready to run A blocked queue per device to hold the TCBs of threads blocked waiting for an I/O operation on that device to complete When a thread is switched out at a timer interrupt, it is still ready to run so its TCB stays on the run queue When a thread is switched out because it is blocking on an I/O operation, its TCB is moved to the blocked queue of the device Computer Science, Rutgers 35 CS 519: Operating System Theory Ready Queue And Various I/O Device Queues Computer Science, Rutgers 36 CS 519: Operating System Theory Switching Between Threads of Different Processes What if switching to a thread of a different process? Caches, TLB, page table, etc.? Caches Physical addresses: no problem Virtual addresses: cache must either have process tag or must flush cache on context switch TLB Each entry must have process tag or must flush TLB on context switch Page table Typically have page table pointer (register) that must be reloaded on context switch Computer Science, Rutgers 37 CS 519: Operating System Theory Threads & Signals What happens if kernel wants to signal a process when all of its threads are blocked? When there are multiple threads, which thread should the kernel deliver the signal to? OS writes into process control block that a signal should be delivered Next time any thread from this process is allowed to run, the signal is delivered to that thread as part of the context switch What happens if kernel needs to deliver multiple signals? Computer Science, Rutgers 38 CS 519: Operating System Theory Thread Implementation Kernel-level threads (lightweight processes) Kernel sees multiple execution contexts Thread management done by the kernel User-level threads Implemented as a thread library, which contains the code for thread creation, termination, scheduling and switching Kernel sees one execution context and is unaware of thread activity Can be preemptive or not Computer Science, Rutgers 39 CS 519: Operating System Theory User-Level Thread Implementation kernel process thread 1 pc sp code pc thread 2 data sp thread stacks 40 User-Level vs. Kernel-Level Threads Advantages of user-level threads Performance: low-cost thread operations (do not require crossing protection domains) Flexibility: scheduling can be application specific Portability: user-level thread library easy to port Disadvantages of user-level threads If a user-level thread is blocked in the kernel, the entire process (all threads of that process) are blocked Cannot take advantage of multiprocessing (the kernel assigns one process to only one processor) Computer Science, Rutgers 41 CS 519: Operating System Theory User-Level vs. Kernel-Level Threads user-level threads kernel-level threads threads thread scheduling user kernel threads process thread scheduling process scheduling processor processor Computer Science, Rutgers process scheduling 42 CS 519: Operating System Theory User-Level vs. Kernel-Level Threads No reason why we should not have both user-level threads Most systems now support kernel threads thread scheduling User-level threads are available as linkable libraries user kernel kernel-level threads thread scheduling process scheduling processor Computer Science, Rutgers 43 CS 519: Operating System Theory Kernel Support for User-Level Threads Even kernel threads are not quite the right abstraction for supporting user-level threads Mismatch between where the scheduling information is available (user) and where scheduling on real processors is performed (kernel) When the kernel thread is blocked, the corresponding physical processor is lost to all user-level threads although there may be some ready to run. Computer Science, Rutgers 44 CS 519: Operating System Theory Why Kernel Threads Are Not The Right Abstraction user-level threads user-level scheduling user kernel kernel thread blocked kernel-level scheduling physical processor Computer Science, Rutgers 45 CS 519: Operating System Theory Scheduler Activations: Kernel Support for User-Level Threads Each process contains a user-level thread system (ULTS) that controls the scheduling of the allocated processors Kernel allocates processors to processes as scheduler activations (SAs). An SA is similar to a kernel thread, but it also transfers control from the kernel to the ULTS on a kernel event as described below Kernel notifies a process whenever the number of allocated processors changes or when an SA is blocked due to the userlevel thread running on it (e.g., for I/O or on a page fault) The process notifies the kernel when it needs more or fewer SAs (processors) Ex.: (1) Kernel notifies ULTS that user-level thread blocked by creating an SA and upcalling the process; (2) ULTS removes the state from the old SA, tells the kernel that it can be reused, and decides which user-level thread to run on the new SA Computer Science, Rutgers 46 CS 519: Operating System Theory User-Level Threads On Top of Scheduler Activations user-level threads user-level scheduling blocked active user kernel scheduler activation kernel-level scheduling blocked active physical processor Source: T. Anderson et al. “Scheduler Activations: Effective Kernel Support for the User-Level Management of Parallelism”. ACM TOCS, 1992. Computer Science, Rutgers 47 CS 519: Operating System Theory Threads vs. Processes Why multiple threads? Can’t we use multiple processes to do whatever it is that we do with multiple threads? Of course, we need to be able to share memory (and other resources) between multiple processes … But this sharing is already supported by threads Operations on threads (creation, termination, scheduling, etc..) are cheaper than the corresponding operations on processes This is because thread operations do not involve manipulations of other resources associated with processes (I/O descriptors, address space, etc) Inter-thread communication is supported through shared memory without kernel intervention Why not? Have multiple other resources, why not threads? Computer Science, Rutgers 48 CS 519: Operating System Theory Thread/Process Operation Latencies Operation User-level Thread (s) Kernel Threads (s) Processes (s) Null fork 34 948 11,300 Signal-wait 37 441 1,840 VAX uniprocessor running UNIX-like OS, 1992. Operation Kernel Threads (s) Null fork 45 Processes (s) 108 2.8-GHz Pentium 4 uniprocessor running Linux, 2004. Computer Science, Rutgers 49 CS 519: Operating System Theory Synchronization Synchronization Problem Threads must share data Data consistency must be maintained Computer Science, Rutgers 51 CS 519: Operating System Theory The Critical Section Problem When a process executes code that manipulates shared data (or resource), we say that the process is in its critical section (for that shared data) The execution of critical sections must be mutually exclusive: at any time: only one process is allowed to execute in its critical section (even with multiple CPUs) Each process must request the permission to enter a critical section 52 Terminologies Critical section: a section of code which reads or writes shared data Race condition: potential for interleaved execution of a critical section by multiple threads Results are non-deterministic Mutual exclusion: synchronization mechanism to avoid race conditions by ensuring exclusive execution of critical sections Deadlock: permanent blocking of threads Starvation: execution but no progress Computer Science, Rutgers 53 CS 519: Operating System Theory The Critical Section Problem • The section of code implementing the request to enter a CS is called the entry section • The critical section might be followed by an exit section • The remaining code is the remainder section • The critical section problem: to design a protocol that, if executed by concurrent processes, ensures that their action will not depend on the order in which their execution is interleaved (possibly on many processors) 54 Framework for Critical Section Solution Analysis •Each thread executes at nonzero speed, but no assumption on the relative speed of n threads •Structure of a concurrent thread: repeat entry section critical section exit section remainder section forever •No assumption about order of interleaved execution •Basically, a ME solution must specify the entry and exit sections 55 Requirements for Mutual Exclusion • No assumptions on hardware: speed, # of processors • Mutual exclusion is maintained – that is, only one thread at a time can be executing inside a CS • Execution of CS takes a finite time • A thread/process not in CS cannot prevent other threads/processes to enter the CS • Entering CS cannot de delayed indefinitely: no deadlock or starvation Computer Science, Rutgers 56 CS 519: Operating System Theory What about thread failures? If all three criteria (ME, progress, bounded waiting) are satisfied, then a valid solution will provide robustness against failure of a thread in its remainder section (RS) Because failure in RS is just like having an infinitely long RS However, no valid solution can provide robustness against a thread failing in its critical section (CS) A thread Ti that fails in its CS does not signal that fact to other threads: for them Ti is still in its CS 57 Synchronization Primitives Most common primitives Locks (mutual exclusion) Condition variables Semaphores Monitors Need Semaphores, or Locks and condition variables, or Monitors Computer Science, Rutgers 58 CS 519: Operating System Theory Solutions for Mutual Exclusion •software reservation: a thread must register its intent to enter CS and then, wait until no other thread has registered a similar intention before proceeding •spin-locks using memory-interlocked instructions: require special hardware to ensure that a given location can be read, modified and written without interruption (i.e. TST: test&set instruction) •OS-based mechanisms for ME: semaphores, monitors, message passing, lock files 59 Locks Mutual exclusion want to be the only thread modifying a set of data items Can look at it as exclusive access to data items or to a piece of code Have three components: Acquire, Release, Waiting Computer Science, Rutgers 60 CS 519: Operating System Theory Example public class BankAccount { Lock aLock = new Lock; int balance = 0; ... public void deposit(int amount) { aLock.acquire(); balance = balance + amount; aLock.release(); } Computer Science, Rutgers 61 public void withdrawal(int amount) { aLock.acquire(); balance = balance - amount; aLock.release(); } } CS 519: Operating System Theory Implementing Locks Inside OS Kernel From Nachos (with some simplifications) public class Lock { private KThread lockHolder = null; private ThreadQueue waitQueue = ThreadedKernel.scheduler.newThreadQueue(true); public void acquire() { KThread thread = KThread.currentThread(); if (lockHolder != null) { waitQueue.waitForAccess(thread); KThread.sleep(); } else { lockHolder = thread; } } Computer Science, Rutgers 62 // Get thread object (TCB) // Gotta wait // Put thread on wait queue // Context switch // Got the lock CS 519: Operating System Theory Implementing Locks Inside OS Kernel (cont) public void release() { if ((lockHolder = waitQueue.nextThread()) != null) lockHolder.ready(); // Wake up a waiting thread } This implementation is not quite right … what’s missing? Computer Science, Rutgers 63 CS 519: Operating System Theory Implementing Locks Inside OS Kernel (cont) public void release() { boolean intStatus = Machine.interrupt().disable(); if ((lockHolder = waitQueue.nextThread()) != null) lockHolder.ready(); Machine.interrupt().restore(intStatus); } Unfortunately, disabling interrupts only works for uniprocessors. Computer Science, Rutgers 64 CS 519: Operating System Theory Implementing Locks At User-Level Why? Expensive to enter the kernel Parallel programs on multiprocessor systems What’s the problem? Can’t disable interrupt … Many software algorithms for mutual exclusion See any OS book Disadvantages: very difficult to get correct So what do we do? Computer Science, Rutgers 65 CS 519: Operating System Theory Implementing Locks At User-Level Simple with a “little bit” of help from the hardware Atomic read-modify-write instructions Test-and-set Atomically read a variable and, if the value of the variable is currently 0, set it to 1 Fetch-and-increment Compare-and-swap Computer Science, Rutgers 66 CS 519: Operating System Theory Hardware Solutions: Interrupt Disabling •On a uniprocessor, mutual exclusion is preserved but efficiency of execution is degraded Process Pi: repeat • while in CS, execution disable interrupts cannot be interleaved with critical section other processes in RS enable interrupts •On a multiprocessor, mutual remainder section exclusion is not preserved forever • CS is atomic but not mutually exclusive •Generally not an acceptable solution 67 Hardware Solutions: Special Machine Instructions • Normally, an access to a memory location excludes other access to that same location • Extension: designers have proposed machines instructions that perform two actions atomically (indivisible) on the same memory location (ex: reading and writing) • The execution of such an instruction is also mutually exclusive (even with multiple CPUs) • They can be used to provide mutual exclusion but need to be complemented by other mechanisms to satisfy the other two requirements of the CS problem (and avoid starvation and deadlock) 68 Test-and-Set Instruction •A C++ description of test-and-set: •An algorithm that uses test&set for mutual exclusion: 69 bool testset(int& i) { if (i==0) { i=1; return true; } else { return false; } } Process Pi: repeat repeat{} until testset(b); CS b:=0; RS forever Test-and-Set Instruction (cont.) Shared variable b is initialized to 0 Only the first Pi that sets b enters CS Mutual exclusion is preserved •if Pi enter CS, the other Pj are busy waiting When Pi exit CS, the selection of the next Pj that enters CS is arbitrary No bounded waiting Starvation is possible 70 Using xchg for Mutual Exclusion •Shared variable b is initialized to 0 Process Pi: repeat k:=1 repeat xchg(k,b) until k=0; CS b:=0; RS forever •Each Pi has a local variable k •The only Pi that can enter CS is the one that finds b=0 •This Pi excludes all the other Pj by setting b to 1 71 Atomic Read-Modify-Write Instructions Test-and-set Read a memory location and, if the value is currently 0, set it to 1 Fetch-and-increment Return the value of of a memory location Increment the value by 1 (in memory, not the value returned) Compare-and-swap Compare the value of a memory location with an old value If the same, replace with a new value Computer Science, Rutgers 72 CS 519: Operating System Theory Mutual Exclusion Machine Instructions Advantages Applicable to any number of processes/threads on either a single processor or multiple processors sharing main memory It is simple and easy to verify It can be used to support multiple critical sections 73 Mutual Exclusion Machine Instructions Disadvantages Busy-waiting consumes processor time Starvation is possible when a process leaves a critical section and more than one process is waiting. Deadlock If a low priority process has the critical region and a higher priority process needs it, the higher priority process will obtain the processor just to wait for the critical region 74 Implementing Spin Locks Using Test&Set #define UNLOCKED 0 #define LOCKED 1 Spin_acquire(lock) { while (test-and-set(lock) == LOCKED); } Spin_release(lock) { lock = UNLOCKED; } Problems? Computer Science, Rutgers 75 CS 519: Operating System Theory Implementing Spin Locks Using Test&Set #define UNLOCKED 0 #define LOCKED 1 Spin_acquire(lock) { while (test-and-set(lock) == LOCKED); } Spin_release(lock) { lock = UNLOCKED; } Problems? Lots of memory traffic if TAS always sets; lots of traffic when lock is released; no ordering guarantees. Solutions? Computer Science, Rutgers 76 CS 519: Operating System Theory Spin Locks Using Test and Test&Set Spin_acquire(lock) { while (1) { while (lock == LOCKED); if (test-and-set(lock) == UNLOCKED) break; } } Spin_release(lock) { lock = UNLOCKED; } Better, since TAS is guaranteed not to generate traffic unnecessarily. But there is still lots of traffic after a release. Still no ordering guarantees. Computer Science, Rutgers 77 CS 519: Operating System Theory OS Solutions: Semaphores Synchronization tool (provided by the OS) that does not require busy waiting A semaphore S is an integer variable that, apart from initialization, can only be accessed through two atomic and mutually exclusive operations: wait(S) signal(S) Avoids busy waiting when a thread has to wait, the OS will put it in a blocked queue of threads waiting for that semaphore 78 Semaphores •Internally, a semaphore is a record (structure): type semaphore = record count: integer; queue: list of threads end; var S: semaphore; •When a thread must wait for a semaphore S, it is blocked and put on the semaphore’s queue •The signal operation removes (according to a fair policy like ,FIFO) one thread from the queue and puts it in the list of ready threads 79 Semaphore Operations wait(S): S.count--; if (S.count<0) { block this thread place this thread in S.queue } signal(S): S.count++; if (S.count<=0) { remove a thread P from S.queue place this thread P on ready list } •S.count must be initialized to a nonnegative value (depending on application) 80 Semaphores: Observations S.count >=0 the number of threads that can execute wait(S) without being blocked is S.count S.count<0 the number of threads waiting on S is = |S.count| Atomicity and mutual exclusion no two threads can be in wait(S) and signal(S) (on the same S) at the same time (even with multiple CPUs) The code defining wait(S) and signal(S) must be executed in critical sections 81 Semaphores: Implementation •Key observation: the critical sections defined by wait(S) and signal(S) are very short (typically 10 instructions) •Uniprocessor solutions: disable interrupts during these operations (ie: for a very short period) does not work on a multiprocessor machine. •Multiprocessor solutions: use software or hardware mutual exclusion solutions in the OS. the amount of busy waiting is small. 82 Using Semaphores for Solving Critical Section Problems For n threads Initialize S.count to 1 Only one thread is allowed into CS (mutual exclusion) To allow k threads into CS, we initialize S.count to k 83 Process Pi: repeat wait(S); CS signal(S); RS forever Using Semaphores to SynchronizeThreads We have two threads: P1 and P2 Problem: Statement S1 in P1 must be performed before statement S2 in P2 Solution: define a semaphore “synch” Initialize synch to 0 P1 code: S1; signal(synch); P2 code wait(synch); S2; 84 Binary Semaphores •Similar to general (counting) semaphores except that “count” is Boolean valued •Counting semaphores can be implemented using binary semaphores •More difficult to use than counting semaphores (eg: they cannot be initialized to an integer k > 1) 85 Binary Semaphore Operations waitB(S): if (S.value = 1) { S.value := 0; } else { block this process place this process in S.queue } signalB(S): if (S.queue is empty) { S.value := 1; } else { remove a process P from S.queue place this process P on ready list } 86 Problems with Semaphores • Semaphores are a powerful tool for enforcing mutual exclusion and coordinate threads • Problem: wait(S) and signal(S) are scattered among several threads •It is difficult to understand their effects •Usage must be correct in all threads •One badly coded (or malicious) thread can fail the entire collection of threads 87 Monitors • Are high-level language constructs that provide equivalent functionality to semaphores but are easier to control • Found in many concurrent programming languages • Concurrent Pascal, Modula-3, uC++, Java... • Can be implemented using semaphores 88 Monitors Is a software module containing: •one or more procedures •an initialization sequence •local data variables Characteristics: •local variables accessible only by monitor’s procedures •a process enters the monitor by invoking one of it’s procedures •only one process can be in the monitor at any one time 89 Monitors • The monitor ensures mutual exclusion • no need to program this constraint explicitly • Shared data are protected by placing them in the monitor •The monitor locks the shared data on process entry • Process/thread synchronization is done using condition variables, which represent conditions a process may need to wait for before executing in the monitor 90 Condition Variables A condition variable is always associated with a condition and a lock Typically used to wait for a condition to take on a given value Three operations: cond_wait(lock, cond_var) cond_signal(cond_var) cond_broadcast(cond_var) Computer Science, Rutgers 91 CS 519: Operating System Theory Condition Variables Local to the monitor (accessible only within the monitor) Can be access and changed only by two functions: •cwait(a): blocks execution of the calling thread on condition (variable) a • the process can resume execution only if another process executes csignal(a) •csignal(a): resume execution of some process blocked on condition (variable) a. • If several such process exists: choose any one • If no such process exists: do nothing 92 Condition Variables cond_wait(lock, cond_var) Release the lock Sleep on cond_var When awakened by the system, reacquire the lock and return cond_signal(cond_var) If at least 1 thread is sleeping on cond_var, wake 1 up Otherwise, no effect cond_broadcast(cond_var) If at least 1 thread is sleeping on cond_var, wake everyone up Otherwise, no effect Computer Science, Rutgers 93 CS 519: Operating System Theory Posix Thread (Pthread) API _ thread creation and termination pthread_create(&tid,NULL,start_fn,arg); pthread_exit(status)’ _ _ _ thread join pthread_join(tid, &status); mutual exclusion pthread_mutex_lock(&lock); pthread_mutex_unlock(&lock); condition variable pthread_cond_wait(&c,&lock); pthread_cond_signal(&c); 94 Condition Variables (example) _ _ thread 1 pthread_mutex_lock(&lock); while (!my-condition) pthread_cond_wait(&c,&lock); do_critical_section(); pthread_mutex_unlock(&lock); thread 2 pthread_mutex_lock(&lock); my-condition = true; pthread_mutex_unlock(&lock); pthread_cond_signal(&c); 95 Producer/Consumer Example Producer Consumer lock(lock_bp) while (free_bp.is_empty()) cond_wait(lock_bp, cond_freebp_empty) buffer free_bp.get_buffer() unlock(lock_bp) lock(lock_bp) while (data_bp.is_empty()) cond_wait(lock_bp, cond_databp_empty) buffer data_bp.get_buffer() unlock(lock_bp) … produce data in buffer … … consume data in buffer … lock(lock_bp) data_bp.add_buffer(buffer) cond_signal(cond_databp_empty) unlock(lock_bp) lock(lock_bp) free_bp.add_buffer(buffer) cond_signal(cond_freebp_empty) unlock(lock_bp) Computer Science, Rutgers 96 CS 519: Operating System Theory Monitors •Awaiting processes are either in the entrance queue or in a condition queue •A process puts itself into condition queue cn by issuing cwait(cn) •csignal(cn) brings into the monitor one process in condition cn queue •csignal(cn) blocks the calling process and puts it in the urgent queue (unless csignal is the last operation of the monitor procedure) 97 Deadlock Computer Science, Rutgers Lock A Lock B A B 98 CS 519: Operating System Theory Deadlock Computer Science, Rutgers Lock A Lock B A B 99 CS 519: Operating System Theory Deadlock Computer Science, Rutgers Lock A Lock B Lock B Lock A 100 CS 519: Operating System Theory Deadlock (Cont’d) Deadlock can occur whenever multiple parties are competing for exclusive access to multiple resources How can we deal deadlocks? Deadlock prevention Design a system without one of mutual exclusion, hold and wait, no preemption or circular wait (four necessary conditions) To prevent circular wait, impose a strict ordering on resources. For instance, if need to lock variables A and B, always lock A first, then lock B Deadlock avoidance Deny requests that may lead to unsafe states (Banker’s algorithm) Running the algorithm on all resource requests is expensive Deadlock detection and recovery Check for circular wait periodically. If circular wait is found, abort all deadlocked processes (extreme solution but very common) Checking for circular wait is expensive Computer Science, Rutgers 101 CS 519: Operating System Theory