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Chapter 1, Section 2
I. The Polis: Center of Greek Life (pages 135-138)
A. By 750 B.C., the polis, or city-state, had become the central focus of Greek life. The polis was the
town, city, or village and its surrounding countryside. The people met for political, religious,
social, and economic activities.
B. City-states varied in size. Most were between a few hundred and several thousand people.
Athens was one of the largest, with a population of more than three hundred thousand by 400
B.C.
C. The polis was a community of people who share a common identity and common goals. There
were three groups: citizens with political rights (adult males), citizens without political rights
(women and children), and noncitizens (slaves and resident aliens).
D. Tyrants, or rulers who seized power by force and were not subject to the law, controlled the
Greek city-states in the seventh and sixth centuries B.C.
E. Greeks eventually turned against tyrants because they felt tyranny was an insult to the ideal of
law. In its absence, democracy, or government by the people, was able to flourish in some citystates.
F. Greek states developed different forms of government. Some city-states became democracies,
ruled by many, and others became oligarchies, ruled by the few. Two of the most powerful citystates, Athens and Sparta, illustrate the differences.
G. The city-state of Sparta consciously created a military state. All Spartan men enrolled in military
service at age 20 and lived in military barracks until age 30. At 30, they could vote and live at
home, but remained in the military until age 60.
H. Spartan women were expected to be healthy so they could raise healthy children. Because the
men lived away, Spartan women had more autonomy and power in the household than
elsewhere in Greece.
I.
Sparta was headed by an oligarchy of two kings and a council of elders. Spartans were
discouraged from interacting with the outside world and from studying subjects and art that
might encourage critical thinking.
J.
The art of war was the Spartan ideal.
K. A king ruled early Athens. By the seventh century B.C. it was ruled by an oligarchy of aristocrats
who owned the best land and controlled political life.
L. Near the end of the seventh century, economic problems led to political turmoil. Many Athenian
farmers were sold into slavery for nonpayment of their debts to aristocrats. Cries arose to cancel
the debts and give land to the poor. Civil war threatened.
M. The aristocrats gave power to Solon in 594 B.C. Solon favored reform. He canceled the debts but
did not give land to the poor. This left the aristocrats in power and the poor unable to attain
land.
N. In 508 B.C., Cleisthenes, another reformer, gained the upper hand. He create a new council of
five hundred to supervise foreign affairs, oversee the treasury, and propose laws. He gave to the
Athenian assembly, composed of male citizens, authority to pass laws after free and open
debate. For this reason, Cleisthenes' reforms laid the foundation for Athenian democracy.
O. All male citizens voted to elect the Council of 500, which controlled foreign policy and the
treasury. Because all male citizens openly debated legislation, Athens had a direct democracy.
P. Athenian democracy was more limited than in modern times. Women, foreign residents, and
slaves were not considered active or voting citizens.
Q. However, it was also less limited because so many citizens actively participated. On average,
6,000 men attended the assembly's meetings, which were held every ten days.
R. The Age of Pericles lasted from 461 B.C. to 429 B.C. Pericles advanced democracy by paying
salaries so more citizens could serve in public office. Under Pericles, Athenian culture flourished.
II. The Greek Love of Wisdom (pages 139-141)
A. Philosophy ("love of wisdom") refers to an organized system of rational thought. Early Greek
philosophers were concerned with the nature of the universe. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle are
considered to be three of the greatest philosophers of the Western world.
B. Socrates developed the Socratic method. This was a question-and-answer format to lead pupils
to understand things for themselves. It was based on Socrates' belief that knowledge is already
present within each of us. The task of philosophy is to call forth knowledge.
C. Socrates said "the unexamined life is not worth living." The belief in the individual's ability to
reason was an important contribution of Greek thought.
D. Plato was one of Socrates' students and considered by many to be the greatest Western
philosopher.
E. Plato explained his views on government in a work entitled The Republic. Plato believed that
people could not achieve a good life unless they lived in a just and rational state.
F. The ideal state has three groups—rulers, warriors, and commoners. Led by a philosopher-king,
men and women would have the same education and equal access to all positions.
G. Plato established a school in Athens called the Academy. His most important pupil was Aristotle,
who studied at the Academy for 20 years.
H. Aristotle had wide-ranging interests including ethics, logic, politics, poetry, astronomy, geology,
biology, and physics.
I.
After studying and observing existing governments, Aristotle found three forms of government
that would rationally direct human affairs: monarchy, aristocracy, and constitutional
governments. Aristotle preferred the latter.
J.
The Greeks were the principal source of Western culture, providing the foundations of
philosophy, the rational method of inquiry, and the roots of Western literature. Essential
Western political ideas also came from Greek culture.