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Europe 1445 – 1570: Exploration, Encounters and Empire Exploration Spain A ‘dry, barren, impoverished land’, never really thought to become something of note Poor, unproductive land with a limited economy Extremely variable climate meant food could not easily be grown Civil problems, a ‘country divided within itself’, seemingly unstable ‘Fragmented, disparate, a complex of different races, languages, and civilisations’, not a unified country Virtually no middle class in Castile and the vast majority of the population were landless peasants living in grinding poverty With its lack of natural advantages it was unlikely to become strong As the Reconquista proceeded, greater hostility developed among the Christian population, towards Jews and Muslims Spain, for so long, a mere geographical expression, was somehow transformed into a great country Marriage of Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile in 1469 and their victory in the war of succession of 1474-9 brought a personal union of their two Crowns and freed Christian Spain from many of their internal divisions, giving the country the energy and strength to pursue expansionist policies Portugal Small, poor and culturally backward, unlikely to have been of any importance and not considered powerful or useful in any way Population was less than a million With only one university, it was lacking academically, limited knowledge Land was too poor and rocky to support more than a modest agricultural economy Lacked the commercial expertise and resources to break into the Italian-dominated trade of the Mediterranean Middle class was ‘dominated by foreign communities’ and the mass of the Portuguese population were peasants Nobility were a ‘warlike, impetuous and superstitious class’, untouched by the Renaissance; the leaders were set in their ways with traditional views, minds not yet opened up to the new perspectives of the world, behind on the evolution of change Yet it was this rather insignificant nation which, in less than a century, changed the map of the world, very historically important with its revolutionary discoveries Natural advantage of geographical position Portugal was one of the first emergent nation states of Europe to stabilise its political boundaries and had been an independent state since 1139 Portuguese nobility, the Avis dynasty, favoured expansionary ventures, generally sympathetic to the aspirations of the merchant class and saw the economic benefits to be gained from Portuguese power overseas Ottoman Expansion During C15th, the Ottomans came to dominate the Balkans and the Eastern Mediterranean. They engulfed the Byzantine Empire, conquered Hungary and controlled North Africa. The fall of Constantinople in 1453 signalled the end of the Byzantine Empire, and it meant that the Ottomans gained a foothold in Eastern Europe. Impact on Exploration Established Viewpoint (O’Sullivan, Arnold) The Ottoman Empire was a barrier between Europe and the Far East It made the land-route to China impassable The territorial ambitions of the Spanish and Portuguese in North Africa were thwarted by Ottoman power The fall of Constantinople sparked European expansionism The Ottoman expansion blocked trade routes The Ottomans challenged their dominance. It rekindled crusading spirit – the Spanish and Portuguese were Christian, whereas the Ottomans were Muslim – they wanted to defend themselves against Islamic threat The Ottomans blocked their natural path of expansion (into North Africa), meaning that they had to leap further in order to discover new territory Revisionist Viewpoint (Scammell) Suggests that Ottoman expansion did not spark European expansion When the voyages began in the mid-1440s, spice imports from the Middle East were rising and prices were falling – therefore there was not a shortage of spices which motivated the Europeans to search for spices at their source Doesn’t add up chronologically – by the time the Ottomans conquered the Levant in the early 16th century, the Portuguese were already sailing regularly to Asia Turkish rule imposed order and reduced taxes – which would have facilitated rather than impeded trade Encounters The Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed at Tordesillas, 7 June 1494, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between Spain and Portugal along a meridian 370 Castilian leagues west of the Cape Verde islands Map showing the line of demarcation between Spanish and Portuguese territory, as first defined by Pope Alexander VI (1493) and later revised by the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494). Spain won control of lands discovered west of the line, while Portugal gained rights to new lands to the east, as well as Brazil. The Treaty of Tordesillas was agreed upon by the Spanish and the Portuguese to clear up confusion on newly claimed land in the New World. It intended to resolve disputes between the two powers when Columbus returned in 1493. Pointless Helpful Unhelpful Tiny adjustments of the Incentive to operate Competition is healthy line, unmeasurable in separately and to explore Incentive to challenge is reality their spheres further lost Deal between the Less competition, more monarchs, therefore little monopoly effect on what explorers actually did 1542, Spain claimed the Philippines despite it not being within their division Portuguese Encounters Atlantic and the Americas 1500 1521 1526 1534 Portuguese traders reach Newfoundland and Labrador Settlement established on Cape Breton Island Hostile Amerindians and European rivals lead to the abandonment of Cape Breton Island First sugar exports from Brazil Section out Brazil into captaincies to be subjugated, colonised and exploited Achievements Portuguese sailors and fishermen did play an important role in their discovery and exploitation Several Portuguese attempts were made to establish colonies in or near Newfoundland because the waters were found to contain a seemingly endless supply of cod Difficulties Portugal did not establish any permanent settlements in North America It is uncertain how successful Portugal was in Newfoundland but we know that by the late sixteenth century the Newfoundland fishing banks were dominated by the English and French Brazil 1500 1502 Pedro Cabral accidentally discovers Brazil on a voyage aiming for India King Manuel sells monopoly rights to Brazilwood Achievements Brazil was within the area Portugal had been assigned in the Treaty of Tordesillas This was the beginning of the Portuguese empire in America Cabral’s fleets landed in Brazil and they discovered quantities of Brazilwood, a profitable commodity Proprietary captaincies laid a lasting Portuguese presence Degredados and other castaways began to settle informally on the coast and integrate into local native society These people became invaluable intermediaries between the Portuguese settlers and the native Amerindians Portuguese gradually learned more about Amerindian culture Built relations with indigenous peoples The Portuguese described the natives as shameless savages with limited rational thinking Optimistic about converting natives to Catholicism Suggested that the natives (Tupi) had Difficulties Didn’t find precious metals or spices Rival nations such as France Captaincies struggled to survive Steep coastal ranges of the Serra do Mar formed a formidable physical barrier Indigenous people were dangerous cannibals In battle they would drag off prisoners who were subsequently killed and eaten When the Portuguese tried to establish more permanent settlements in the 1530’s, they began enslaving and by the 1550’s the pressure on the Amerindian society lead to complete breakdown Most of the enterprises in Bahia and Pernambuco were short lived Estimated that Jesuits lost about 3/4 of their converts in Bahia alone by 1580 promising potential as labourers and could be easily converted to Catholicism Later the Portuguese people discovered that although the Tupi were characteristically tolerant and gentle within their own villages, warfare was fundamental to their relationships with outsiders European revulsion against cannibalism provided a convenient justification for those Portuguese who wanted tough action against the Tupi and to justify them as inferior Several attempts were made to found permanent Portuguese settlement in Brazil and introduce sugar cultivation At first the Amerindians were able to maintain their culture and society and had successful trade with visiting Europeans Factors for success and failure Success Quality of ships and skill on water Shocked by Tupi cannibalism Superior weapons Natives viewed them with fear Forced labour of Amerindians Degredados Settlement near Santos Plant colonies along coastline Sugar showed great promise Failure Inner areas were difficult to access (steep coastal ranges of the Serra do Mar formed a formidable physical barrier) Hostile Amerindians No precious metals or spices within Brazil Rivalry with nations such as France Attempts to enslave natives Africa 1415 1424-44 1434 1440s 1443 1444 Portuguese capture the city of Ceuta in Morocco Prince Henrique finds only barren coastline, few inhabitants and little prospect of trade One of Henrique’s ships passes Cape Bojador despite the shallows and difficult winds and currents, finds an abundance in seals and a little gold dust Henrique’s men have been commencing slaving raids on African soil and bartering for gold dust, first at the Rio do Ouro and then the island Arguim Portuguese discover Arguim, Prince Henrique secures a monopoly for trade in Arguim and funds the first fortified trading base of the Portuguese Empire Fernandes, a squire for Prince Henrique, volunteers to be left ashore at Rio do Ouro to conduct a personal reconnaissance and gain information Discovers fertile and populous land with evidence of gold at the mouth of the Senegal River However penetration to inferior gold fields is almost impossible due to dense rainforest and the African peoples Several Portuguese captains voyage past the Sahara into the waters off Upper Guinea, reaching the River Senegal, Cape Verde and the River Gambia 1445 1448 1455 1456 1457 1466 1470s 1471-74 1479 1480 1482 1485 1487 First confirmed contact with Black Africans (the Niominka people) in vicinity of Cape Verde Henrique concludes that the River Senegal might link to the Nile and revitalises hope of contact Prester John Coastal fort built in Arguim to protect the Portuguese gold trade from European rivals Henry bans slave raiding, easier to trade for slaves Papal Bull Romanus Pontifex forbids subjects of all other Christian rulers from entering Arguim, however wasn’t very effective Progress beyond Gambia, hindered but Cadamosto does sail some distance up the River Gambia Cadamosto reaches the River Geba Portuguese negotiate a peace treaty with the Niominka, trade in Upper Guinea grows quickly Portuguese issue a new gold cruzado (significant quantities of gold acquired through Arguim) To encourage settlement of Cape Verde islands, Afonso V grands colonists special exemption to trade anywhere in West Africa, apart from Arguim Fernão Gomes’ ships reach the Bight of Benin Agents of Gomes discover than in various coastal villages of Ghana, it is possible to acquire considerable quantities of gold by barter and Gomes makes substantial profits from this discovery Joao II resumes direct control of the trade monopoly on this coastline (the Mina Coast) later known as the ‘Gold Coast’, to control trade, Joao orders the construction of a massive stone fortress at the mouth of the River Benya, on the Ghanaian Coast Treaty of Alaçovas, Portugal secure Castilian recognition of most of its monopoly beyond Cape Bojador, in return for Portugal recognising Castile’s exclusive right to the Canaries and Granada King Joao II orders that Henrique’s original timber fort in Arguim be replaced by a stone structure Slaves being obtained on a more systematic basis as part of Portugal’s commerce with African states and traders Diogo Cao, under Joao II, reaches the River Zaire and erects padroes (carved pillars asserting Portuguese claim to the territory) Joao despatches a fleet to build the fort, under Azambuja, on the Mina coast Azambuja gains permission from the local ruler, Amsah, through a combination of presents and thinly veiled threats of force By the end of the year, Joao has the infrastructure in place to siphon off gold from Mina Coast Coastal fort in Elmina built Joao II adopts the title of ‘Lord of Guinea’, although he had no genuine political domination over any significant segment of West Africa Cao sails 170km up to the Zaire river to just below the Yellala Rapids, then onto the kraal of the King of Kongo Cao reaches the Namibian coast and erects another pedrao Portuguese given permission by the ruler to do business in Benin rather than in the creeks and swamps of the coast Joao II despatches Dias to round southern Arica and reach the Indian Ocean Joao installs a client ruler over the Jolof kingdom, south of the River Senegal Bumi Jeleen had ruled this kingdom before but had been exiled by rivals, flees to Portuguese Arguim and is taken to Lisbon where he renounces Islam for Christianity, swears allegiance to the Portuguese crown and agrees that Portugal can build a 1488 1490 1491 1494 1500 1503 1507 1530 1532 1541-43 1550 1562-90 1575 1580 fortified base on Jolof territory Fleet of caravels transport Bumi Jeleen back to Senegal, however the expedition’s commander has a violent confrontation with him and stabs him to death Missionaries, teachers and craftsmen sent to the Kongo Kingdom to try to convert and persuade African rulers to Christianise and Europeanise their subjects French pirates regularly visit the coast of Upper Guinea to prey upon Portuguese ships King Nzinga a Nkuwu of Kongo baptised a Catholic, assuming the regal name of Joao I, his son and successor is also a committed Catholic Portuguese emissary in search of Prester John reaches the Coptic Christian Kingdom of Ethiopia In fifty years 150,000 slaves have been taken to Europe Coastal fort built in Axim on the ‘Gold Coast’ A Christian convert, Nzinga Mbemba, ascends the Kongo throne as Afonso I, until his death in 1543 he favours close ties with Portugal and seeks to model his kingdom on European links Normans and Breton vessels frequenting the region of Upper Guinea for trade Opening of Americas and establishment of sugar plantations in Brazil, shipments of slaves sent directly from West Africa to the New World (367,000 slaves by 1600) 400 Portuguese soldiers sent to help the Ethiopians rest a Muslim Invasion English vessels frequenting the region of Upper Guinea for trade Dutch seize several Portuguese trading posts along the West African Coast Luanda, Angola, becomes leading port by which slaves are shipped to Brazil from Dutch vessels frequenting the region of Upper Guinea for trade Achievements By their commercial intervention, the Portuguese succeeded in diverting part of the Saharan gold trade to the Atlantic coast Portuguese constructed a series of coastal forts; these trading stations became the prototype for the numerous European ‘factories’ later established elsewhere in Africa, Asia and the Americas Slaves were being obtained on a more systematic basis as part of Portugal’s commerce with African states and traders; an estimated 150,000 taken to Europe Discovered a second gold trade in the region of Zimbabwe Created a base on Mozambique island Christian convert, Nzinga Mbemba, ascended to the throne of Kongo in 1507 and favoured closer ties with Portugal Difficulties Prevented from penetrating the goldfields by the dense rainforests and African peoples of the region On land the Portuguese had few of the advantages they had at sea Their firearms were often less effective than African spears of bows Poor in resources and manpower at home, they could not summon many warriors Tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever caused high mortality among them Deterred by disease, local resistance and sheer distance from the coast, failing to establish control over the actual goldproducing area of Zimbabwe With the attrition of disease and the opening up of the East Indies trade, Portuguese interest rapidly dwindled Factors for success and failure Success Failure Trade Political Portuguese were successful in trade, the Portuguese struggled to keep sole control – discovery of gold and slaves and the gain of rivals and foreign competition didn’t monopolies recognise Portugal’s monopolies (Treaty of From the late 14th century to the early 15th Alcáçovas/ Papal Bull Romanus Pontifex) and century, West Africa yielded about 400kg of the Dutch seized some of Portugal’s coastal gold a year, allowing Portuguese to maintain forts on the west African coast their own coinage (the cruzado) from trade Social in Arguim Portugal lacked in manpower and resources Social to oppose the African people effectively, Portuguese accumulated much invaluable leading to poor relations knowledge of the coastal features of West Religious Africa and the peoples Religious success in Kongo but little elsewhere Navigational and geographical hazards Disease Technology Weapons were insufficient against the bows and arrows of the African peoples Competition English, Dutch, French, Normans and Bretons Asia 1510 1511 1514 1515 1530 1537 1540 1545 1546 1547 1551 1587 Portuguese secure base at Goa, close to the source of the Malabar pepper trade Portuguese capture Malacca Papal bull issued by Leo X, grants Portuguese territory is any region they might reach sailing eastwards Take Hormuz, dominating the approaches to the Persian Gulf Atjenese very dangerous neighbours both in war and trade Atjenese assault fortress of Malacca Arrival of the Jesuits in Goa brings a more determined religious spirit to Portuguese relations with Hindus as well as Muslims in India Sultans bitterly hostile to Portuguese conquerors of Malacca and only allow them to trade at Bantam Success achieved in Amboina Atjenese assault fortress of Malacca Atjenese assault fortress of Malacca Gain a period of respite in western Indonesia by peace treaty with Atjeh Achievements Portuguese secured fortified bases and a place in eastern commerce Superiority of European ship-borne artillery Goa, their Asian capital, a naval base of considerable strength Dominated sea-route from Europe to India because no competition for one hundred years Great diversity and geographical range of their activities First worldwide traders Lingua franca of Asiatic maritime trade Difficulties Portuguese pioneers lacked detailed geographical knowledge Failure to sail on time meant delays of many months, and might have meant disaster on the way Dangers of hunger and thirst, scurvy and dirt-borne infections always present Health precarious, mortality high Always short of trained seamen, therefore untrained hands had to be signed on One sailing in every six ended in disaster Portuguese lost their early reputation for Country trade very extensive and profitable Portuguese well entrenched and defended at Malacca Establishments of missions and factories in other islands Portuguese sought to extend their commercial, political and religious influence Pagan villagers of the area willing to accept the religion of the power Shipping formidable by local standards in the East Indies Maritime trade remained successful and profitable well into the 17th century Secure imperial power over direct sea-borne spice trade to western Europe Conducted a widespread, varied and profitable trade in eastern products, and monopolised the trade between India and Europe by Cape Route Portuguese ships and guns made them the dominant power in maritime Asia Little more than fifty years after da Gama’s arrival in southwest India, Portuguese seapower spanned the Indian Ocean from Mozambique to East Africa to Malacca on the southern tip of the Malayan peninsula Portuguese were able to develop trade and a military alliance with the Hindu rulers of the Vijayanagar empire Asia failed to present a united front to European intruders in South India Conversion of 300,000 Japanese out of an estimated population of 20 million Some fifty Portuguese forts between East Africa and Japan by 1600 invincibility, few in number, far from home, strongholds widely scattered One of the many competing and warring maritime powers Portuguese warships in Malacca were too few to make this domination continuously effective In the Moluccas and eastern Indonesia, Portuguese position was weak Dependent on the Sultan’s good will Crusading tradition of the Portuguese and the uncompromising orthodoxy and vigour of their missionaries hampered their commercial and diplomatic endeavours Sea passage along coast of Java became dangerous North Javanese Sultans prevented any junction between Portuguese and rulers of inland Java Not strong enough to secure a monopoly of the Java trade Eventually the Dutch who profited from this opportunity Not an important territorial power in the East Indies Limited power over sea-borne spice trade to Western Europe Never succeeded in establishing the monopoly which Albuquerque had planned No monopoly of the purchase of spices and no control over their production Base at Goa did not create for the Portuguese a territorial dominion of their own Alliances with Hindu rulers of the Vijayanagar empire were notoriously unstable Failed to capture Aden which would have given them command of the Red Sea Squabbles between rival groups of European missionaries and Portuguese traders, along with changing internal political conditions, unleashed a backlash which by 1640 had virtually erased all traces of Christianity in Japan Pepper Trade 1499 1503 1540 Da Gama’s first return from Kerala only brings back a token cargo of spices Da Gama’s fourth return brings back 30,000 quintals Crown owes contractors of Feitorias over 2 million cruzados, rapidly approaching 1548 1570 1576 1597 insolvency Feitoria is closed Portuguese crown temporarily abandon monopoly system altogether, however this only lasts six years King Sebastiâo reverts to monopoly with all various stages contracted out which worked reasonably well Rising pepper prices in India, growing shipping losses, worsening security, and threat of Dutch and English competition caused potential contractors to lose interest Achievements Crown had a well-established tradition of direct participation in trade Five years after Gama’s pioneering voyage, Portuguese already introducing more spices to European marked via the Cape 96% of homebound cargoes consisted of pepper, and pepper soon became a major source of revenue for the crown; declared a royal monopoly Crown sold pepper through Portuguese feitoria, acquiring German silver needed for Indian trade Portuguese were supplying 75% or more of Europe’s pepper imports for most of the century; held an overwhelmingly dominant share Difficulties Feitoria trade led to a steady accumulation of long term debt Portuguese had never succeeded in entirely replacing the overland routes Portuguese never had a complete monopoly Early in 17th century, Portuguese did irretrievably lose their dominant position; competition from Dutch and English Portuguese shipped supplies dwindling, pepper prices in decline Spanish Encounters Mexico 1519 1520 1521 1523 1524-36 1530 1535 Hernan Cortés fleet of 600 men arrive on the Gulf coast of Mexico Battle of Otumba, an attack against the Tenochtitlan, with assistance from 100,000 natives from other tribes, such as Tlaxacalan Spanish take Montezuma captive, defeat his successor, and establish rule in Mexico Conquest of Guatemala 4 million conversions recorded in Mexico alone Cabeza de Vaca travels from Florida to the Gulf of California, returns to Mexico City Viceregal administration set up in Mexico Achievements Beautiful and intelligent native women called Marina spoke Nahuatal (the language of the Aztec) and quickly learnt Spanish, becoming the expedition interpreter Her courage and presence of mind were to save Cortes life Montezuma was made captive of the Spanish, and was manipulated by Spanish Eventually Montezuma was burnt alive by the Tenochtitlan Immense quantities of gold and silver ornaments melted down so Cortes and Charles V could receive their shares Aztec images were destroyed and decades of human blood sacrifices were washed from temple steps During the battle of Otumba Aztec, food and water supply was cut-off, which reduced the city population and destroyed homes Hernan Cortés’ fleet reached Mexico, the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan, and took out the emperor Montezuma to establish Spanish rule Discovery of huge quantities of silver in Bolivia and Mexico Difficulties Peru 1531 1532-42 1532 1533 1535 1536 Francisco Pizarro leads a force of 180 men against the Inca Empire Pacific coast of Nicaragua becomes a major slaving centre, as many as 200,000 natives are seized from this coastline and shipped off into slavery Battle of Cajamarca, Pizarro attacks the Inca army Inca Empire is formally annexed to Spain 1/3 of the population of Nicaragua have been enslaved War against Manco Capac, Spanish capture 100 Indians alive and cut off their arms or nose and the breasts of women and, afterwards, take their gold and silver Achievements Difficulties Atahualpa accepted an invitation from A trial was held and Atahualpa was found Pizarro to visit him the following day in the guilty on various accounts of planning an square of Cajamarca uprising, so he was sentenced to be burnt The Spaniard thoroughly rehearsed the In the Inca religion, bodies that were event, which went to plan destroyed by fire were not eligible for the Atahualpa entered the square surrounded by afterlife deck-out nobles This crime startled Europe and Charles V Pizarro signalled a dropped handkerchief and condemned it the Spanish cannon opened up, this led to a 2 hour massacre of those who failed to escape the square In exchange for his freedom his subjects, Atahualpa took 2 months fill a room that measures about 7 by 5 by 2.5 meters with gold Gold that was torn from temple walls and golden ornaments of enormous value was brought into Cajamarca Inca Empire in Peru invaded and defeated by the Spanish New Granada 1536 Conquest of New Granada West Indies 1493 1494 1502 1508 1509 1511 Columbus returns to the West Indies with 1500 settlers to colonise Hispaniola Risings of local Indians protest against mistreatment by Spaniards, seizure and transportation of 500 slaves, of whom half died before arriving in Spain A further 2500 settlers from Spain arrive at Hispaniola Puerto Rico is raided and conquered Jamaica is raided and conquered Cuba is raided and conquered Achievements Hispaniola quickly produced impressive quantities of gold Available cheap labour from the Arawaks meant they could also produce sugar Difficulties 1494 risings of local Indians protesting against mistreatment by Spaniards Columbus’ difficulties in communicating with the natives After 1498-1500 voyage, Columbus sent home in irons as a consequence of serious disputes among settlers on Hispaniola Thousands of natives rapidly died, the Arawak population diminished and disappeared Total depopulation of the Bahamas Destruction of native population through overwork in sugar production, 300,000 Arawaks fell to below 500 Panama 1511 1513 1519 Balboa succeeds in controlling Spaniards as well as living in peace with surrounding Indians Balboa sets out from Darien with Spaniards and help from Indians, crown refuses to support Vasco Núñez de Balboa crosses the neck of land that forms the Isthmus of Panama and reaches the Pacific coast Pedrarias orders the execution of Balboa Achievements Vasco Núñez de Balboa, first European to reach Pacific coast Circumnavigation dramatically advanced European knowledge of the far side of the globe Helped pioneer an important trans-Pacific route which made possible annual trade between Acapulco and Manila where American silver was received in Asia in large quantities Voyage also established a Spanish claim to the Philippines Difficulties Crown refused to support Balboa Overall factors for success and failure Success Help from Indigenous people Aztec religion Mixture of cruelty and superstition On holy days thousands of captive queued up along the steps of a temple, for the priest to cut their chest and rip out their hearts to offer them to the Aztec Gods Montezuma He was likeable and intelligent but rapidly dominated by Cortes Montezuma assumed that Cortes was one of the re-incarnated Aztec God, Quetzalcoatl who was a serpent God that left Mexico before promising one day he’d return Technical and psychological advantages 1514 Papal bull spurred Spanish on to try to reach the Spice Islands by their western route before the Portuguese could via the Indian Ocean Failure Fierce sense of rivalry with other powers, Portuguese were rapidly advancing Way around South America lay too far south, too perilous Indigenous labourers died in large numbers as a result of imported diseases or the harsh treatment from the settlers High proportion of early settlers died because of the climate, lack of food, and clashes with the natives Illnesses and inability to adapt to new conditions caused death Victories in Mexico and Peru spawned fresh military adventures Indigenous peoples of Hispaniola, the Arawaks, peaceful and obedient, easily enslaved Foreign financiers supported expeditions Germans helped in return for rights to trade and settle in Venezuela Portuguese Settlement Development of forts and the commercial consequences When Brazil was discovered, it was realised that Brazilwood would have some considerable European value Therefore King Manuel decided to sell monopoly rights, this meant that the purchasers had to establish a fortified feitoria and explore annually The establishment of Feitorias was later preceded by systematic settlement up until the 1530’s The Portuguese secured a base at Goa, with considerable naval strength in 1510 They gained a military and trade alliance with Hindu rulers Goa was the economic and administrative centre of their organisation However for three months every winter, it was very difficult to approach Goa harbour and for three months every summer they couldn't leave the harbour either Therefore the seasons where the spices could be brought to Goa were restricted ‘Their commercial strength was not due to their formidable naval strength, but was due to the great diversity and geographical range of their activities’ – Parry The principle Portuguese bases in the East Indies were Malacca and Ternate Malacca was captured in 1511 and was ruled by a Portuguese Governor Due to this capturing and conquering, native trade avoided Malacca like the plague The Sultan leaders nearby grew in power due to their new and more popular trade links Atjenese (a tribe) attacked the Malacca base in 1537, 1547 and in 1551 Malacca had no allies in the area and only in 1587 did they gain a peace treaty with Atjeh However the Portuguese position was well entrenched and defended The Sultan of Ternate grew hugely in power over the clove and nutmeg trade, so therefore the Portuguese sought to extend their commercial, political and religious influence The Portuguese dominated trade routes from Europe to India due to having no competition However in Asia they had to accept being part of the trade with numerous other traders Malacca and Ormuz were strategic bases where they could prey on Muslim shipping Establishment of trade in Goa and Malacca In 1510 a secure base at Goa was formed with trade alliances with local Hindu rulers In 1511 a base was secured at Malacca In 1569 there was a huge attacked planned on the base by the Sultans 2 years of vicious fighting took place until the sultans gave up Trade missions in China and Japan and settlement in Macau Profitable to the Portuguese was the acute demand in Japan for Chinese manufactured goods Direct trade between Japan and China had been forbidden by the Ming Emperor in 1480 So the Portuguese – as official traders – held an important advantage The first visit to Japan was in 1542-3 and they soon established a fort at Nagasaki (1572), where they were expelled by the Japanese 70 years later (1640 - lost all influence) The value of silver was higher in China than in Japan, so for a further profit they could exchange the silver for gold on return voyages in Macau Originally one big shipment would go down to Japan but because of Dutch threat, numerous smaller and faster cargoes and ships travelled down to Japan In 1521 and 1522 the Portuguese were defeated at sea by the Chinese But in 1525 they began to trade in Macau, South China. Settlement in Mozambique, Angola and Guinea In 1502 a base at Mozambique was established, where later (1505) gold trade was discovered and used By the 1530’s they were living among the Shona-speaking Tonga and Karanga By the last quarter of the 16th century, much territory and many inhabitants were under the Portuguese control This resulted in the Prazo system, which was a territorial chieftaincy, granted by an African ruler to an individual; it implied a right to certain tributes from the inhabitants The presence and authority of the Portuguese crown was weak in Mozambique, so they had to confirm individual muzungos in possession of Prazos granted by African rulers and chieftains These went on to be too powerful and became highly independent forces in the region The base in Angola was established in 1520 In 1575, Luanda, Angola was the leading trading port which shipped slaves from Africa to Brazil; this was in order to provide labour for the sugar cane production In 1575 the Portuguese secured lots of settlements They held a strong foothold; several smaller institutions were set up in the interior In Guinea, the Portuguese faced opposition from the Niomika people, who fired poison arrows at them In 1456 peace was established between the Portuguese and the Niomika people Private traders gained considerable wealth in Guinea Bumi Jeleen fled to Portugal from his rivals, where he renounced Islam and swore allegiance to Christianity; this meant that he agreed to let the Portuguese set up a fortified base on Jolof territory Gomes never managed to set up bases on the shore, therefore Portugal’s domination of West Africa was a claim rather than a reality This is shown where in 1485 King Joao titled himself ‘Lord of Guinea’ Settlement in Guinea was predominantly by various Portuguese and Portuguese ‘mixedbloods’ who settled informally and permanently along the coast The number of them was impossible to control, so the descendants became slowly more widespread and entrenched Initial settlement of Brazil as 15 Captaincies, failure of the captaincies and the results, and the development of Portuguese Brazil In 1500 Pedro Cabral accidentally discovered Brazil; he was aiming to travel to India in order to redirect the spice trade In 1501 Vespucci went to Brazil to discover new commodities and land Their aims in Brazil were; to colonise it, use its precious Brazilwood, and take control over indigenous peoples (Tupi People) In 1534 Brazil was divided up into 15 captaincies to be subjugated, colonised an exploited Their main successes were the profit from the large supply of Brazil wood, the relations between Portuguese and the natives due to the Degredados who were put in Brazil, the sugar cultivation and plantations which were set up went on to be extremely successful The Tupi people were quite easy to initially conquer because they were not particularly strong of widespread and they had no lasting buildings Unsuccessful aspects were that they tried to use the indigenous peoples as slaves but this caused violence which resulted in wars (Tupi people especially resulted in warfare), there was a large failure of the early captaincies since they couldn’t keep control Also, rival nations were not bound to the Treaty of Tordesillas and therefore they might not have recognised Portugal’s claims of monopoly and land, making the task of securing settlements even more important In 1532 the first settlement of Sao Vicente was established, from a voyage captained by Martim Afonson de Sousa, who therefore was granted the rights and responsibility of that captaincy The help and local knowledge from the Portuguese castaways who landed there 20 years beforehand was invaluable in choosing where to site the settlement The crown decided settlements had to be planted systematically along the coastline Out of 15 different captaincies, only 2 captaincies were remotely successful and this was due to the physical presence of their leaders Captaincies were a way of the crown keeping control without having to pay for the areas to be governed Sugar showed great promise as a plantation crop; this indicated that land was more valuable than previously thought Due to the dwindling control in Brazil the crown decided in 1548 to establish an overarching rule Martim de Sousa was appointed governor general and arrived to take his post in 1549 He created the foundations for a strong city Salvador by 1553 It was the place that had a huge mud wall which protected it, a court, a customs house, a prison and a hospital Mem de Sa was also appointed as a leader He pacified the hostile Tupi people and managed to conquer the great threats to the Portuguese forts –the French 1550 saw the breakdown on Tupi society due to an internal authority crisis Slave hunting expeditions (saltos) were launched and Mem de Sa conducted harsh campaigns against hostile groups This lead to increased suicide and the King had to enforce a prohibition on Amerindian enslavement; slave trading was banned in 1448 and replaced by trading for slaves which was a lot more practical and successful By 1600 there were about 30,000 people in the white population of Brazil. Role of the governor generals They had responsibility of looking after the area they had been given Jesuit missions Attempts to convert indigenous peoples started seriously in 1517 in Goa In 1536 there was the mass conversion of 10,000 Parava Fishermen on the coast of Southern India In 1549 a small group of Jesuits were led by Manuel Nobrega and they were the first to attempt systematic evangelising The Jesuits were strongly back by the crown and the governors-generals The Tupi people were willing baptise but it was far more difficult to maintain the Christian faith as the Jesuits underestimated the depth and complexity of converting the Amerindians from their deep traditional beliefs and customs The Jesuits were also keen to educate, they did this through short plays which made Catholic beliefs accessible, and they also set up educational centres Due to the huge death toll from diseases, the Jesuits estimated that they lost about 3/4 of their converts in Bahia alone by 1580 Their limited numbers meant that they could only evangelise from a few mission bases, not quite what they had hoped for; converting the whole world to Catholicism The Mughal emperor Akbar (1556-1605) welcomed the Jesuits but had no intention in converting The only successful conversions were very small and insignificant and the larger the conversions, the more suspicious rulers were, for example there was a violent suppression and persecution of the converted communities in Japan after 1614 Overall, only small areas were converted en masse and these were mainly areas which were formally under control of the Estado da India (Goa, Sri Lanka and parts of Mozambique) Only these areas secured long term success Development of sugarcane cycle In the mid-16th century sugar was showing a great promise as a plantation crop and therefore land was a more valuable investment than previously thought In the 16th century the sugar cane production rose dramatically in Brazil Entradas and Bandeiras The Entradas were exploring missions with the aim of capturing natives to use for labour When the Entradas had captured as many as possible, the natives had pushed themselves further and further back into the Amazon forest The Bandeiras conducted expeditions to go into the Amazon to discover and capture little pockets of native Amerindians By the end of the 16th century, African slaves were beginning to be imported into Brazil as the supply of natives to use as slaves was running low The Jesuits were against the Entradas as they didn’t want the Amerindians to be captured Spanish Settlement Council of the Indies Governing the provinces, Spain was determined to maintain strict control over its empire To achieve this goal, the King set up the Council of the Indies to pass laws for the colonies The Council of the Indies (Consejo de Indias), also known as officially the Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies, was the most important administrative organ of the Crown of Castile The Council of the Indies administrated for both the Asia’s and the Americas combining legislative, executive and judicial functions Spain was determined to maintain strict control over its empire To achieve this goal, the king (Charles V) set up the Council of the Indies to pass laws for the colonies in 1524 He also appointed viceroys or representatives who ruled in his name, in each province Lesser officials and audiences, or advisory councils of Spanish settlers, helped the viceroy rule The Council of the Indies in Spain closely monitored these colonial officials to make sure they did not assume too much authority Controlling trade One of the things Spain did was to control trade to help make the empire profitable; Spain closely controlled its economic activities, especially trade The most valuable resource shipped from Spanish America to Spain was bullion (silver and gold) Colonists could export raw materials only to Spain and could buy only Spanish manufactured goods Laws forbade colonists from trading with other European nations or even with other Spanish colonies This allowed the Spanish to maximise profits and reduce competition The Spanish conquerors were determined on locating and removing precious metals—gold and silver—from the Aztec and Inca empires that they encountered The mining of silver was accomplished by the enslaving of the native people, later supplemented by importing African slaves This was because the native people had greatly depopulated in numbers It has thought that before the Spanish arrived, the population of central and South America was estimated at about 50 million people After one hundred years of Spanish rule, only about 8 million people were left When sugar cane was introduced into the West Indies and elsewhere, it quickly became a profitable resource The cane was refined into sugar, molasses, and rum Sugar cane, however, had to be grown on plantations, large estates run by an owner or the owner’s overseer And plantations needed large numbers of workers to be profitable Encomienda’s – A System of Forced Labour In 1512, the Encomienda system was created by the Spanish to control and regulate the Native American labour and behaviour during the colonization of the Americas Under the Encomienda system, conquistadors and other leaders known as Encomenderos received grants of a number of indigenous people, from whom they could exact ‘tribute’ in the form of gold or labour The Encomenderos were expected to protect and Christianise the Indians granted to them, however many of them often used the system to effectively enslave the Native Americans and work under the most brutal conditions and take their lands Those who resisted were hunted down and killed Disease, starvation, and cruel treatment caused drastic declines in the Native American population Not all Spaniards approved of this cruel treatment of native people There was one man who played a particular important role in fighting for better treatment of Native Americans His name was Bartolomé de Las Casas Las Casas had come to Hispaniola in 1502 and taken part in the conquest of Cuba in 1512 During his conquest to Cuba, he received an Encomienda Las Casas was also a Catholic priest, however, and he soon faced a moral dilemma He began to wonder how a person serve God and enslave Native Americans at the same time In 1514, Las Casas gave up his claim to the Native Americans who worked for him For the next 50 years, he fought against the abuse of Native Americans, leading to him getting the title ‘Protector of the Indians’ Because of his efforts, the Spanish king issued the New Laws in 1542 These laws ordered the gradual freeing of all enslaved Native Americans Holders of Encomiendas who were found guilty of mistreating Native Americans had their Encomiendas taken away Many Native Americans were forced to become peons, workers forced to labour for a landlord in order to pay off a debt Landlords advanced them food, tools, or seeds, creating debts which workers could never pay off in their lifetime Spreading Religion Spreading Catholicism was clearly an important goal that the Spanish had to do in order to establish their colonies In fact, it can be argued that winning souls for Catholicism was as important as gaining land for the Spanish The Catholics worked with the Spanish government in order to help convert the natives to Christianity Church leaders often served as royal officials and helped to regulate the activities of Spanish settlers As Spain’s American empire expanded, Church authority expanded along with it Franciscans and Jesuits (both Catholic missionaries) baptized thousands of Native Americans They built mission churches and worked to turn new converts into loyal subjects of the Catholic king of Spain The Spanish missionaries also introduced a new culture to the Americas They introduced European clothing, the Spanish language, and new crafts such as carpentry and locksmithing Where they could, the Spanish missionaries forcibly imposed European culture over Native American culture This was used as a way to help establish their colonies. By the 1570s, the Spanish had established roughly 200 cities and towns in the New World and New Spain refers to Spanish possessions in North and Central America and the Caribbean In these territories, the Spanish established large projects to exploit available resources Throughout the 1500’s they established sugar plantations in the Americas and the Caribbean and gold mines in Mexico Many of the Spanish settlers did not bring Spanish Woman with them so it meant that many of them had to intermarry with the Natives Consequences for Indigenous Peoples of European Settlements Military Portuguese European weapons meant more violence between peoples who had not previously had firearms Spanish European weapons meant more violence between peoples who had not previously had firearms Runaway slaves (cimarrons) assisted Spanish enemies in their attacks on the Caribbean, for example the support of thirty cimarrons assisted Francis Drake in his expedition across the isthmus of Panama in 1572 Black Africans played a role in the conquest of Americas and their prowess as soldiers became legendary – one hero of the conquest of Chile, Juan Valiente, became an encomenderos in 1550 Economic Portuguese Some dislocation of the indigenous trades, for example the Portuguese in East Africa disrupted Arab commerce there Indigenous merchants in Asia often successfully outmanoeuvred the Europeans, taking advantage of their local knowledge and lower costs to shift their business – Indians were dominant in the Indian trade Europeans only secured footholds on the coasts of India, Sri Lanka, Indonesia and the Philippines, as these were already densely populated and controlled by powerful rulers European livestock – pigs, cattle, sheep, horses – damaged or destroyed native agriculture Spanish Columbus seized 500 young people from the Caribbean in 1495 and sent them to Spain as slaves Kamen estimated that over 90% of deaths among indigenous peoples were caused by disease and not cruelty Indigenous Amerindians also had to pay tribute to the Spanish and contribute to the administrative costs of colonies – had to provide fixed amounts rather than a percentage tax, which was hard in years of poor harvest, further reducing the population 1500, around 5000 slaves were transported annually from the West African coast, rising to 8000 a year by 1550 Social Portuguese Some indigenous families improved their status by migrating to towns, taking on offices there, or intermarrying with European families European languages, names, customs and buildings scattered across the world, opening up interaction and communication between different peoples Spanish Arrival of the Europeans aggravated existing indigenous rivalries between different political leaders/groups European languages, names, customs and buildings scattered across the world, opening up interaction and communication between different peoples Skills such as building and crafts of all kinds Diplomatic relationships between the Portuguese and major powers were conducted at a more formal and equal level Arrival of Europeans aggravated existing indigenous rivalries between different political leaders/groups shred from Europe with the indigenous peoples, for example metal cooking pots and tools for North America Indians Religious/Cultural Portuguese Christianity allowed members of impoverished lower standings in Asia a way out of their inferior status – conversion opened up tradition opportunities and better treatment for indigenous peoples A major pandemic of smallpox broke out in Hispaniola in 1518, and reached Mexico in 1520 The Portuguese were originally very successful in converting the Japanese, but they turned against them, driving the Portuguese out in 1639 – Christians were also persecuted, tortured and put to death Some indigenous groups did resist or escape European influence managed to meet the Europeans on their own terms, or were sustained by their own tradition Spanish By mid-1500s the Spanish had concerns about genuineness of many conversions, and a shortage of priests and language skills to follow up – missionary zeal gradually dwindled In the Merida area of the Yucatan in 1546, following an attack by the Maya, the Spanish encomenderos killed hundreds of Mayas, enslaved around 200 and burned 6 native priests and hanged women A major pandemic of smallpox broke out in Hispaniola in 1518, and reached Mexico in 1520 There was much sexual exploitation of female slaves in Brazil – often became mistresses to their white masters for their benefit but also were badly treated Consequences Political Religious Social Economic/Financial Habsburg Empire (under Charles V) became a major power in Europe – Europe wide empire with extensive overseas territories 1550 – the whole of the New World belonged to Spain, Spain grew in power and prestige Charles V – most influential Habsburg leader and gained status as world leader Conversion in the New World gave the Spanish confidence and encouragement to pursue a return to Catholicism in Europe Counterreformation – conflict New attitudes to accepting new things – either using the existing world to explain the new things or ignorant to anything new and unexplained New things Food, maize, potatoes, tomatoes, beans, pineapples, turkey Drugs, Indian hemp (cannabis) Luxuries, chocolate, tea, coffee, tobacco, Balance of economic power shifted to Northern Europe Spain and Portugal rose up in power – became increasingly more wealthy due to the slave trade and New World trades Bullion (seized from Aztec and Inca Empires, New World mines) allowed Spain to fund the counterreformation Large slave market with Muslim merchants Slave trade helped (King of Spain, Duke of Burgundy, Ruler of the Netherlands, HRE Emperor, and ruler of the Spanish Americas) Spanish empire was so large that new administration was introduced so that it could be controlled Council of the Indies – controlled appointments, correspondence and law enforcement of the New World, however the orders of the Council would often remain unimplemented Casa de Contractacion – 1503, controlled imports, exports and travel Council of State Council of Italy – 1555, Italian states allocated a separate council (previously represented by the Council of Aragon Bad reputation of the ‘Black Legend’ for Spain – Philip II viewed it as a dictator and tyrant, the enemy sugar New technology – as a result of the exploration (astrolabe, improved ship design) Growth of towns – Antwerp and Lisbon became cosmopolitan Merchants – became more respectable members of society, important middle men Slave trade – changed the social hierarchy Better diets – more accessible foods Increased confidence in themselves and less superstitious attitudes ‘Black Legend’ – Spain, an oppressive power bent on stamping out heresy – stories of atrocities committed in the New World made Protestants even more determined to resist Spanish power with labour shortage in Spain and Portugal Growth of racism – Loans taken out, indigenous peoples Spain’s wealth not viewed as subenough to fund the human massive Habsburg Increased Empire emigration Inflation hit Spain Disease – particularly hard – transported from bread, wine and oil the New World to was five times more Europe expensive in 1600 than in 1500 Causes include the Confusion over the indigenous peoples (different skin colour) – no answer in the Bible (America and Africa not mentioned) – viewed as subhumans and so it did not appear immoral to enslave them increased amount of bullion in circulation, the growth in population, the exploitation of foreigners, the debasement of coinage by the government Internal agriculture and industry in Spain and Portugal declined – Spain became dependent on Europe for food and manufacturing Shortage of willing and skilled workers – slaves replaced Spanish and Portuguese workers, increasing the unwillingness to learn a skill Bankruptcy – 1557, 1575, 1596 – caused by wars, the cost of buying goods from abroad, the cost of controlling vast empires – increase in revolts and reluctance to contribute in the defence of overseas territory Overall Political Spain grew increasingly in power and control – became a major power in Europe The size of the Spanish Empire – problematic Religious Anti-Protestantism led to a bad reputation for Spain Social Economic Positives were merely short-term – led to bankruptcy, inflation and increased dependency of Spain on other European powers New attitudes and views Better lifestyles New social hierarchy New technology, things, foods Spanish and Portuguese Expansion Similarities Wide spread of exploration across whole continents Mainly explore coasts Differences Portugal had a head start Portugal mainly in Africa to start, Spain in Americas Spanish did more settlement building and conquest inland, whereas Portuguese did more travelling and trade over a wider area Spain more securely established How much did they really achieve? Extensive control Old View Significant change to the whole world, but not inevitable Limited achievements in conquest, but successful in wealth and trade Minimal control in the Americas Disunited, politically New View disorganised and uncoordinated Not as powerful and dominant as traditionally thought Why did they succeed? Europeans succeeded because of superior morale, greater determination, better political organisation, more advanced technology, more nutritive diet, and greater capital resources However, it is worth recalling how little of the world was subjugated in this age, with only slightly more than 500,000 Portuguese and Spanish explorers leaving for lands overseas in the sixteenth century Limiting Factors Tropical heat and disease killed them as inexorably as African and European disease killed the Amerindians of the New World Climate; their wooden sailing ships were unable to make their way through frozen polar seas and they were equally at mercy of the tropics, without resistance to, or remedies against their endemic diseases Difficult terrain created obstacles, though not insurmountable ones Their very desire to remain together for mutual edification and moral supervision was in itself a restraint on the territorial expansion of their colonies
