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Bantu Migration(2,000 years ago)
 The Bantu refer to over 400 different ethnic groups in Africa, from Cameroon to South Africa, united by a
common language family, the Bantu languages, and in many cases common customs.
 About 2,000 years ago, small groups of Bantu speakers began spreading south and east.
 They shared their skills with people they met on their journey, adapted their methods to suit their new
environment, and learned new ways.
 Moving eastward toward the savannas they adapted their skills for herding goats and sheep to raising cattle.
 Passing through what is now Kenya and Tanzania, they learned to cultivate new crops.
 This expanded their food supply
 They followed the Congo river through the rain forests, there they farmed the riverbanks.
 1,500 years = Bantu speakers reached the southern tip of
Africa
 They believe the Bantu migrated because their was an
explosion of food supply, which increased the population.
With this increase, their was a need for food and land, so
people went to search these out resulting in the migration.
Charlemagne
 During the 800’s, Charlemagne, a Frankish king, built an empire (modern-day France, Germany, and part of
Italy)
 Cooperation with the Church
 Charlemagne helped Pope Leo III defeat rebellious Roman nobles.
 In return, Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne “Emperor of the Romans”
 Charlemagne wanted a united Christian Europe and helped spread Christianity
 Government
 Appointed nobles to rule local areas (He gave them land, they help defend the empire)
 Sent off officials called missi Domenici to check on conditions throughout the empire
 Learning
 Encouraged learning
 Set up school to educate government officials and established libraries where scholars copied ancient texts.
 End of Charlemagne’s Reign
 Died in 1814- empire fell apart as heirs battled for control
 843- Charlemagne’s grandsons signed Treaty of Verdun- divided Charlemagne’s empire into 3 separate
kingdoms (one for each grandson).
 Charlemagne’s strong government was a model for future medieval rulers
Feudalism
 A system of government in which local lords control their own lands but owe military
service and support to a greater lord.
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The land was divided into estates.
The lesser lords were called vassals.
Local lords owned serfs who would work the land
The serfs were able to live on the land in manors.
Manorialism
Self-Sufficiency
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Manors were the basic economic arrangement during the Middle Ages
The lord provided serfs with protection, housing, and strips of farmland
The serfs worked for the lord and maintained the estate
Peasants rarely traveled from their manor
Nearly everything they needed was produced: crops, fuel, cloth, lumber, and leather goods
The manor contained a church, mill, blacksmith, water, fields, anything that was needed
Troubles of Manor Life
 Serfs had to pay taxes for grain, marriage, and 10% of their income as a tithe, or church tax
 Serfs lived in crowded cottages, with dirt floors and straw beds
 The peasants believed that God determined their place in society
Gothic
 A style of church architecture that developed in medieval Europe, featuring ribbed vaults, stained-glass
windows, flying buttresses, pointed arches, and tall spires.
 Developed in the 1100s, replacing the old Romanesque style of churches.
 Gothic cathedrals, unlike the grave and ominous Romanesque buildings, stood very tall, as if reaching
toward heaven.
 Cathedrals started off in Germany and quickly spread throughout medieval Europe.
 Soon, they were found in Paris, Chartres, Reims, Amiens, and Beauvais.
 Nearly 500 Gothic cathedrals were built between 1170 and 1270.
 Other forms of art centered around the Gothic style, such as sculpture, woodcarvings, and stained-glass
windows.
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Cultural Exchanges: The Crusades
 Crusades
 During the Middle Ages, Europeans had only one significant unifying aspect of life. The
Catholic Church permeated every aspect of society.
 For about 200 years, Western Europe under the sway of the Catholic church attempted to
retake the Holy Land away from the Muslims. The largest target was the holy city of Jerusalem,
however, other areas were fought over, such as the city of Constantinople.
 Although the crusades were considered there were some positive effects. Europeans began to
gain an expanded view of the world. Trade increased drastically. Crusaders brought home new
fabrics, spices, and perfumes.
Saladin
∙ Respected Muslim Leader
∙Saladin united the Muslim world in the late 1100’s.
∙He was respected by both Christians and Muslims.
∙Saladin went to Jerusalem and the Christians had their mind set on stopping him.
∙Taking of Jerusalem
∙There was no Christian victory when they went to stop Saladin.
∙Crusaders in Jerusalem surrendered, but Saladin would not let his soldiers kill or harm them the Crusaders or the
people.
∙Richard the Lion-Hearted
∙King of England in 1189.
∙He wanted to take Jerusalem from Saladin.
∙Richard won a lot of victories during the Third Crusade.
∙Richards forces were unable to capture the city.
Impact of the Crusades
 Increased Trade
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Before the crusades trade with the Byzantine empire sparked interest in goods form the east
Crusaders returning from Europe brought home new fabrics, spices, and perfume
Ships used to carry crusaders now became trade ships
Both Eastern and Western economies benefited from trade
 Encouragement of Learning
 As Europeans were exposed to the Byzantine and Muslim culture they began to take interest in
learning
 They were exposed to advances in math, science, literature, art, and geographic knowledge
 Changes in the Church
 The Crusades increased the power of the pope for a short time
 Problems between Eastern and Western Churches grew after the crusader’s attack on
Constantinople
 Changes in the Feudal System
 Crusades increased the power of Monarchs
 Feudalism was weakening
 Serfs had been to pay for land using food, but now Lords demanded payment in the form of
money to finance the crusades
 An economy based on money, not land, took over
Feudal Japan
Samurai:
 Rival lords in Japan surrounded themselves with body guards called Samurai.
 They lived according the demanding code, Bushido.
 They were expected to show reckless courage, reverence for the gods, fairness, and generosity toward those
who are weaker than themselves.
 Dying an honorable death was more important than living a long life.
Kamakura Shogun:
 The shogun had the power of a military dictator over: Officials, judges, taxes, armies, roads- all were under
his authority.
 Although tradition was the Emperor still reigned, even though the Shogun had the real power.
 The emperor became more of a puppet head than a political influence.
 The Kamakura Shoguns were strong enough to turn back the two naval invasions by the Mongols.
 Although this drained the Shoguns’ treasury and loyal samurais weren’t getting paid.
 Samurais became attached more closely to their local lords and soon local lords were fighting each other as
fiercely as they fought the Mongols.
Shinto
What is Shinto?
 It was a Japanese religion in which each clan in Japan worshipped their own Nature
Gods and Goddesses.
 It was varied because of different customs and beliefs
 Shinto meant “way of the Gods”
 It had no rituals or philosophy, but instead based on respect for the forces of nature.
 Worshipers believed in kami or divine spirits in nature.
 An abnormal tree, rock, waterfall, mountain could be home to kami
Tokugawa Shogun
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Tokugawa Ieyasu
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United Japan in 1600
Held landowner’s (Daimyo) families hostage in the capital of Edo to ensure obedience
Founded the Tokugawa Shogunate, which continued until 1867
Society under the Tokugawa Shogun
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Japan enjoyed over 200 years under the new Shogun
Merchant class and rich prospered
Rich and poor benefited from a growing Japanese culture
Tokugawa Isolation
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European traders first arrived in Japan in the 1500’s.
In 1600’s Tokugawa shoguns had gained control of Japan.
They brought stability but also banned almost all contact with the outside world.
They also limited trade.
Rise of Mongols
Who and where?
 In the 1200’s, a ferocious group of horsemen from central Asia fought their way into Russia. These nomads
were Mongols.
 They exploded onto the scene under the leadership of Genghis Khan, one of the most feared military leaders
of all time.
 When Genghis Khan died in 1227 his successors continued the conquering that he had begun.
Mongols In Russia
 Under Mongol rule the Russians could follow all their usual customs as long as the made no sign of rebellion.
The Mongols tolerated all the religions in their realms, and the Church acted as a mediator between the
people and the Mongols.
 The Mongols demanded two things from the Russians: Extreme Obedience, and massive amounts of tribute.
Mongol Rule Serves Russian Interests
 The Mongol rule in some ways helped unite Russia. They viewed Russia as their unified Empire. The rise of
the city of Moscow also began under Mongol rule.
Genghis Khan
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In the middle 1200’s, a ferocious group of horsemen from central Asia slashed their way into Russia.
These nomads were the Mongols.
They had exploded onto the world scene at the beginning of the 1200’s under Genghis Khan.
He was one of the most feared warriors of all time.
When Genghis Khan died in 1227, his successors continued the conquering that he had begun.
At the fullest extent, the Mongol Empire stretched from the Yellow Sea to the Baltic Sea and from the
Himalayas to northern Russia.
 After the death of Genghis Khan, the Mongolian Empire slowly began to fall apart.
Golden Horde
 During the time of Genghis Khan the Mongols invaded Eastern Europe
 After his time they attacked Russia, Hungary, and Poland
 His grandson, Batu, led Mongol armies into Russia and other lands of Eastern Europe between 1236 and
1241
 This group was known as the Golden Horde because of the color of there tents
 They conquered many Russian cities
 They ruled from a capital on the Volga River for 240 years
 The Golden Horde were fierce warriors but relatively tolerant rulers
Mongol Dynasty
 Kublai Khan Khan was another grandson of Genghis Khan, completed the job of conquering China. He did so by
dominating the south, he did not only rule China, but also Korea, Tibet, and some of Vietnam.
 Yuan dynasty Kublai Khan adopted the Chinese name of the Yuan dynasty for his dynasty because he did not want the
Mongols to become involved with Chinese civilization.
 However, Khan gave his best government jobs to Mongol workers and only allowed Mongols to serve in the
army.
 But, Chinese officials still governed the provinces.
Kublai Khan
Mongol Impact
 Reached it’s greatest extent in 1300.
 Stretched into Russia, Europe, Asia, and China
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Destruction and Conquest
Most of the leaders ruled with tolerance
Genghis Khan allowed art and education in his conquered countries
They ruled Russia for 250 years
They cut it off from the rest of Europe
Mongol Impact
 The Mongols were nomadic herders of central Asia. By 1300, they controlled much of Asia and eastern
Europe.
 The Mongol influence led to increases in trade and cultural spread over Asia and Europe.
 In Russia, the Mongol idea of Absolutist government stuck after the Mongols left, but it also isolated Russia
from Western Europe, leaving it behind in arts and science.
 Mongol rule promoted trade between Europe and Asia. The Mongols guaranteed safe passage along the Silk
Road, which increased trade greatly.
Expansion of Chinese Trade
Trade in Chine bloomed in the Yuan dynasty in the 1200’s.
The Silk Road helped transport goods to Asia Minor, Russia, and other lands. Marco Polo used the Silk Road.
When the Ming dynasty took over China in 1368, economic prosperity came over the land
and trade and cities expanded.
China began overseas expansion and in 1404, Zheng He traveled to many different lands and promoted Chinese
trade and culture.
Chinese city, Canton, became a global center of trade and traders were sent there from all over the world.
Bubonic Plague
 Approximately two thirds of the population in China were wiped out by a deadly disease called the bubonic
plague, that also destroyed populations of Muslim towns in Southwest Asia and killed about one third of
Europe’s population.
 It started in the 1300s.
 The Plague began in Asia.
 The disease became known as the “Black Death.”
 It got its name from the purplish or blackish spots that it produced on the skin.
 The disease was spread by black rats that carried fleas from one area to another. These fleas were infested
with a bacillus called Yersinia pestis, and because people did not bathe and because of unsanitary conditions
the bubonic plague spread very quickly.
 Effects of the disease were high fever, chills, delirium, and in most cases death.
The Effect Of The Bubonic Plague
 In 1347 approximately one third of European’s population died of the deadly disease known as the bubonic
plague.
 The bubonic plague was also known as the black death and began in Asia.
 The black death traveled the trade lines infecting Asia, the Muslim world and eventually Europe.
 It got its name by the black spots that produced on the persons skin infected.
 The plague killed almost 25 million Europeans and millions in Asia and North Africa.
 The economic effects of the plague were enormous. Town populations fell and so did trade.
 The church suffered a loss of prestige when its prayers and penances failed to stop the plague.
 The bubonic plague and its aftermath disrupted medieval society, hastening changes that were in the making.
 The society of the middle ages was collapsing.
SILK ROAD
 The Han dynasty opened a trade route called the silk road that eventually linked china with lands as far west
as Mesopotamia. Silk and other Chinese goods moved west, while products such as muslin, glass, and new
foods came to china. The silk road stretched for 4000 miles. Few merchants traveled the entire distance.
Most of the good that were traded were done at markets along the way
Italian City-States
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1300’s: Northern Italian cities were great places of industry and trade.
City-states that became rich and powerful: Venice, Genoa, and Florence.
Venice took control of the spice trade with Asia due to its location.
Venice took up a partnership with Egypt and both areas became prosperous.
Trade from Italy went as far as Great Britain and the Baltic Sea.
Renaissance
1300-1600
 A period of great change throughout Europe that involved advances in everything from art to
technology.
 The concept of humanism was developed during the early stages of the renaissance, this way
of thinking focused on the present and individual achievements.
 The artistic mentality of the renaissance was much like the art and sculpture of the golden ages
of Rome and Greece. Architecture also returned to Greco-roman fashions.
 Artisans were supported by rich nobles, princes and popes.
 Some of the most famous artisans include Michelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci and Albrecht
Durer.
 Writing also changed during the renaissance, common language began to be used. Machiavelli,
Shakespeare, and Dante were three of the most famous for their literary works.
 The invention of the printing press made books more available to common people, literacy
increased.
 The protestant reformation led by Martin Luther and John Calvin sought to make changes in the
church, the result was two churches, Catholic and protestant.
Humanism
 During the Renaissance, Europeans developed a new way of thinking called humanism.
 A Renaissance intellectual movement at the heart of the Renaissance that focused on worldly subjects that
the ancient Greeks and Romans had studied, rather that religious ones. They hoped to use ancient
learning to increase knowledge about their own times.
 Humanists influenced artists an architects to carry on classical traditions.
 Philosophers and writers had wondered about life after death during the middle ages. Renaissance
humanists, on the other hand, were more curious about life in the present.
Machiavelli
What he did?
 Machiavelli was the a writer , One of his master pieces was The Prince in 1513.
 Machiavelli said that most rules can gain power and keep it in spit of there enemies.
 In the book The Prince, Machiavelli was not concerned with what was morally right, but with what was
politically effective.
 He was also a states man and a political philosopher
MARTIN LUTHER
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A Renaissance individual that didn’t agree with the Catholic church.
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Outraged with the church he wrote 95 thesis (95 ideas that he did agree with), and posted his thoughts on the
church’s door.
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Was banned from the church after an argument about indulgences.
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After breaking away from the church he started the protestant religion.
95 Thesis
 WHO: Written by Martin Luther
 WHAT: Martin Luther posted a list of 95 Theses, or formal statements, that he wrote on the door of a castle
church in Wittenberg,
 WHERE: Posted them on the door of the castle church in Wittenberg, became known all over Germany
 WHEN: October 31, 1517
 WHY: he did those because he did not agree with how a friar named John Tetzel was raising money to
rebuild a church in Rome. Tetzel was selling indulgences to people who have sinned, which would release
them from performing the penalty.
Mansa Musa
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He was an African American ruler
He may have been the grandnephew of Mali’s first leader, Sandiata
Musa was a skilled military leader and exorcised royal control
He was a devout Muslim, he went on a hajj to Mecca from 1324 to 1325
Controlled and ruled a vast empire in Africa
Songhai
 The Songhai was a West African empire that conquered Mali and controlled trade from the 1400’s to
1591.
 They built up an army and extended their territory to the Niger River near Gao, and gained control
of all the important trade routes.
 Until the late 1500’s, civil war broke out. Invaders from the north defeated the forces of Songhai, and
caused downfall of the kingdom.
The First Global Age
Rise Of The Ottoman Empire
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The Ottoman Empire began in the 11th century
There were Ottoman Turks, and after the 13th century there was a new group of people called the Ottoman
Empire lead by Osman I.
When people were captured by the Ottoman Empire they were used for military purposes instead of killing
them.
During the 16th century, the Ottomans gained control of Egypt and Syria, then also Iraq, Hungry, and
Albania, which led to the beginning of a naval force in the Mediterranean Sea.
The Ottoman Empire turned into a great power of Europe.
Suleiman’s Golden Age
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First Came to the throne of the Ottoman Empire in 1520 and ruled for 46 years
Known by his own people as Suleiman the Lawgiver and in the west as Suleiman the Magnificent
The Ottoman conquered all of the eastern Mediterranean under Suleiman’s rule.
Suleiman became the most powerful monarch on earth
He required a good form of government for his large empire and so he simplified the system of taxation and
reduced the government bureaucracy in order to keep the peace and his people happy.
 In 1571 this golden age of Suleiman ended when his sons fleet was destroyed by Spain and Italy
Suleiman’s Mosque
Mercantilism
Definition:
 An economic policy under which nations sought to increase their wealth and power by obtaining large
amounts of gold and silver and by selling more goods than they bought.
Ideas of mercantilism:
 The nation’s ultimate goal under mercantilism was to become self-sufficient, not dependent on other
countries for goods.
 Two ways to increase the nations wealth, according to mercantilism, was to gain as much gold and silver as
they could and establish a favorable balance of trade, in which it sold more goods than they bought.
Reconquista
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This was a long effort to drive the Muslims out of Spain.
The Muslims held a little kingdom.
Spain attacked it and they started the crusades.
The Spanish drove the Muslims out of Spain
Middle Passage
 The Middle Passage was the voyage that brought captured Africans to be used as slaves to the west Indies
 Later they were brought to North and South American
 It was named the Middle Passage because it was in the middle leg of the transatlantic trade triangle.
Hierarchy Triangle
 Latin America
 Latin American colonial society was separated into classes based on the origins and race of the people.
 All the titles of the groups of people made up hierarchy Triangle which determined the place in the
community of the people.
 The Triangle
 At the top were the Penninsulares, men who were born in Spain. They were the only men who could run in
office of the government. They made up 0.1% of the population.
 Below the Penninsulares were the Creoles, Spaniards born in Latin America. They couldn’t hold high-level in
the political office. They had pretty much the same rights as the Penninsulares. They were about 22.8 % of
the population.
 Below the Creoles came the Mestizos, the people of European and Native American ancestry.
 At the bottom were the Mulattos, people of both African and European descent.
Absolutism
Divine Right
 The power for the monarch to rule comes from God and that the king is an agent of God.
 Absolute monarchs used this power to justify their rule.
 Divine Right allowed the monarch to control all aspects of the government because the people
believed that monarch was God’s agent on earth.
Louis XIV(14)
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He was the 14th king of France.
He was an absolute Monarch during the 17th century.
Louis XIV was the only one to totally free himself from the Parliament, which controlled the King.
Louis XIV coined the phrase “L'état, c'est moi”, which means “I am the state.”
Louis XIV centralized the government and made all the laws for France
Louis XIV put France into debt by spending money building the Palace of Versailles and fighting wars.
Peter the Great
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Peter the Great was an absolute monarch in Russia, he was the czar from 1682 to 1725.
He worked to centralize royal power
Reduced the power of nobility and gained control of the Russian Orthodox Church.
Peter wanted to modernize Russia. He traveled from Western European cities to study western technology
and brought back the ideas to westernize Russia.
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Simplified Russian Alphabet, developed mining and textiles.
Peter sometimes resorted to force and terror to achieve his goals.
Created the largest army in Europe in the late 1600s and used it to expand Russian territory.
Westernization under Peter
Peter wanted a modernized Russia, went to Western Europe to study technology, brought back ideas, simplified
the Russian alphabet, developed mining and textiles, capital at St. Petersburg served as symbol of new Russia,
used force and terror to gain goal
Catherine The Great
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Catherine the Great was also known as Catherine II and ruled Russia from 1762-1796.
She was well-educated and read the works of philosophers.
She ruled with absolute power, but took steps to modernize Russia.
In 1767 she proposed that the laws be reformed to follow Montesquieu and Beccaria.
She wanted to allow religious toleration and abolish torture and the death penalty, however these goals were
not accomplished.
 She granted limited reforms but did little to help the serfs, causing a revolt in 1773 which she had brutally put
down.
 She wanted to end serfdom, but she needed the support of the Nobles so stay in power, so serfdom stayed.
Magna Carta
“Great Charter”
 A document guaranteeing basic political rights in England, drawn up by nobles and approved by King
John in A.D. 1215.
 This charter was a form of revolt, rebelling against the unfair leadership of King John.
 John failed as a military leader. He was horrible to his subjects and tried to squeeze money out of them.
To finance his wars, John raised taxes to an all-time high.
 The nobles wanted to guarantee certain basic political rights and limit the power of the king.
 Guaranteed rights included no taxation without representation, a jury trial, and the protection of the law.
Petition of Rights(1628)
 King Charles I had to call Parliament to ask for money
 They refused to give him any until he signed the Petition of Rights
 In the Petition the king agreed to:
 Not imprison subjects without due cause
 Not levy taxes without Parliament’s consent
 Not house soldiers in private homes
 Not impose martial law in peacetime
 The king agreed to the Petition but after he ignored it
 The petition was important because it set forth the idea that the law was higher even then the king.
English Civil War
 Charles I offended the puritans by upholding church rituals and a former prayer book
 Charles tried to force the Presbyterian Scots to accept a version of the Anglican prayer book
 Lead to a conflict between the supporters of parliament and the supporters of English monarchy from 16421649
Oliver Cromwell
 Was a skilled military leader who overthrew the British king.
 King Charles I was put in prison and put on trial. He was sentenced to death by way of beheading. He was
the first king to be executed by his own subjects.
 After the kings execution Parliament’s House of commons abolished the monarchy, the House of Lords, and
the official Church of England. England became a Commonwealth.
 Charles II the heir to the throne revolted against Cromwell and attacked England from Ireland and Scotland.
Cromwell sent troops into Ireland and Scotland to crush the uprising.
 Cromwell took the title of Lord Protector. At the time of his death in 1658 many people were tired of
Puritan rule.
The Restoration
 During the year of 1660, Parliament asked Charles II to become the King of England.
 When Parliament asked Charles II to become King it marked the restoration of the Stuart monarchy.
 In 1685 James II, who was Charles brother inherited the throne in England.
 James II who was currently King in England, was unpopular to the people because of his Catholicism and
his Absolutist policies.
The Glorious Revolution (1688)
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Parliament feared Catholic dominance
Mary and William (Dutch) take English throne.
Both protestant.
When they arrived, James II fled.
Bloodless overthrow of power.
English Bill of Rights
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The bill was drafted in 1689.
England had become a constitutional monarchy meaning there were laws that limited the ruler’s power.
The English Bill of Rights listed the things the leader could not do.
There were four laws- 2 dealt with not interfering with Parliament speech or laws and 2 dealt with not taxing
the citizens without the consent of Parliament and letting the citizens petition.
Limited monarchy (1660)
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Started after the restoration
Passing of habeas corpus act
Parliament passed the bill of rights in 1689
No monarch could rule without parliaments consent
Also called a constitutional monarchy
Scientific Revolution
 Period of time in which a new way of thinking came about. The beliefs held by many for so long were now
being questioned.
 Use logic and reason to solve the problems of the world (Secular not church thought)
 New ideas about the solar system such as Copernicus’ Heliocentric theory and inventions like Galileo’s
telescope allowed scientists to learn more about the universe.
 Also, many new medical discoveries were made. Anton van Leeuwenhoek used a microscope and first saw
red blood cells.
THE SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
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1500’s when people started to challenge the old ideas about the world
The Scientific Method – approach to science using experimentation and
observation
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Copernicus – Heliocentric (theory that the world revolves around the sun)
Galileo – helped proved Heliocentric theory
Isaac Newton – Newton’s Laws of Physics
Brought upon Enlightenment!
Copernicus
Heliocentric Theory
Secular
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Secular teachings occurred during the Renaissance in Italy
Secular teachings were more concerned with worldly matters rather than spiritual
Secular teachings went against the church
Some church leaders though became more worldly rather then sticking with the church
They began to live in mansions, lavish banquets, and wore expensive clothing
Geocentric Theory
 The belief that the earth was the center of the universe and everything else revolved
around it.
Heliocentric (mid- 1500’s)
 Nicholas Copernicus was a Polish scholar who challenged the common belief that the
Earth was the center of the universe.
 Copernicus suggested that the universe actually revolved around the Sun.
 This theory was called heliocentric.
 At the time most scholars rejected Copernicus’s theory.
Copernicus-1500’s
 Developed the Heliocentric or sun-centered theory
 Theory stated that the sun is the center of the universe and that everything revolves
around it
 It took Copernicus 25 years of studies to come up with this theory
 He wrote a book on his findings but feared persecution. He therefore didn’t publish it until 1543. He received
a copy of his book on his death bed.
Galileo
 Galileo Galilei was a young Italian scholar, who discovered the law of the pendulum and proved Aristotle’s
idea to be wrong, by watching a chandelier swing on its chain, and timing it with his on pulse and discovered
that each swing of the pendulum took the exact same amount of time.
 In another study, Galileo found that falling objects accelerate at a fixed and predictable rate. He again proved
Aristotle’s findings to be wrong. Aristotle had stated that heavier objects fall faster than lighter ones. From
the Tower of Pisa, Galileo dropped items of different weights, and calculated how fast each one fell.
Contrary to Aristotle’s belief, the objects fell at the same speed.
 Galileo had found out that a Dutch lens marker had built an instrument that would allow the looker to
enlarge far-off objects. Galileo had not even seen this device, yet he was able to build his own, and with a
few adjustments he was able to use his version of the telescope to study the stars.
 In 1610, Galileo had a series of newsletters published called the Starry Messenger, which described his
astronomical discoveries. He described his findings on the planets, the constellations, etc.
 Galileo’s findings led to major conflict with the Church, since his findings proved the Church wrong. The
Church did not want its followers to believe Galileo, because if they had known that they were wrong about
the Solar System, they might be wrong about religion too.
ISSAC NEWTON
 Born January 4, 1643; Died March 31, 1727
 At 25 years old he began revolutionary advances in math, physics, astronomy and optics.
 Sir Isaac Newton created the law of gravity and disproved Aristotle’s idea that every object attracts every
other object
 In 1967 Isaac Newton published his book Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy
 This book is one of the most important scientific books ever written.
 He discovered that most everything in the universe could be expressed mathematically
Scientific Method (1600’s)
 It is a logical procedure for gathering and testing ideas.
 It begins with a question or problem arising from an observation.
 Next you form a hypothesis
 Then test the hypothesis by doing experiments and collecting data
 Lastly, analyze and interpret data to reach a conclusion, that conclusion either proves or disproves
your hypothesis
 The work of two important thinkers helped to advance the new approach:
 Francis Bacon
 An English politician and writer
 He criticized the way both Aristotle and medieval scholars arrived at their conclusions
 He felt that they should experiment first and gather information, and than use that information to
draw their conclusions (this is called the experimental method)
 Rene Descartes
 Developed analytical geometry, which linked algebra and geometry
 Like Bacon he believed scientists needed to reject old assumptions, but by using mathematics and
logic
 Everything should be doubted until proved by reason
 “I think, therefore I am”