Download The 4000 family

THE CHALLENGE TOWARDS
FASTER MICROPROCESSOR
ABU HASSAN SAAD
NORLELAWATI ABDUL AZIZ
IRENE YONG SEOK CHING
RAIZATUL UMMI YUNUS
82483
82494
82991
82499
The first single chip CPU
Intel 4004
4-bit processor meant for a calculator.
Processed data in 4 bits
Instructions were 8 bits long.
Program 4K
Data memory 1K
There were also sixteen 4-bit (or eight 8-bit)
general purpose registers.
The 4004 had 46 instructions
2,300 transistors in a 16-pin DIP.
It ran at a clock rate of 740 kHz
(eight clock cycles per CPU cycle of
10.8 microseconds)
WHAT CAN 4004 DO ?
4004 CAN BE
PROGRAMMED !!
I CAN BUILT A
CALCULATOR !!!!!!
The 4000 family
•
•
•
•
•
4001 - 2,048-bit ROM memory
4002 - 320-bit RAM memory
4003 - 10-bit I/O shift register
4004 - 4-bit central processor
The 4004 housed 2300 transistors
on a 3mm x 4mm die.
CALCULATOR IS NOT
GOOD ENOUGH
I WANT A BETTER CALCULATOR
8008 (1972)
• The 8008 increased the 4004's word length
from four to eight bits, and doubled the volume
of information that could be processed.
• It was still an invention in search of a market
however, as the technology world was just
beginning to view the microprocessor as a
solution to many needs.
CALCULATOR IS NOT
ENOUGH
I WANT SOMETHING BETTER
WHAT ABOUT 8080 ?
The 8080 was 20 times as fast as the 4004 and
contained twice as many transistors (5000).
8-bit chip
Used it in a wide variety of products.
Use in the first kit
the Altair.
computer
The computer is TOO SLOW
I WANT A FASTER COMPUTER
8088 (1979) Will This Satisfy You?
A 16-bit processor with an 8-bit external bus.
IBM chose it for its first PC.
The success of the IBM PC and its clones gave
Intel a dominant position in the semiconductor
industry.
You know, 80286 (1982) is faster.
With 16 MB of addressable memory and 1 GB of
virtual memory, this 16-bit chip is referred to as
the first "modern" microprocessor.
became the dominant chip of its time.
It contained 130,000 transistors and packed
serious compute power (12 MHz) into a tiny
footprint.
80386 (1985), 80486 (1989)
Reduce Instruction Set Computer (RISC)
The price/performance curve continued its steep
climb with the 386 and later the 486 -- 32-bit
processors that brought real computing to the
masses.
The 386, which became the best-selling
microprocessor in history, featured 275,000
transistors; the 486 had more than a million
Pentium Starting 1993
NAME
Itanium
Pentium III
Xeon
Pentium III
Celeron
Pentium I
Xeon
Athlon
AMD-K6-III
AMD-K6-2
AMD-K6
Pentium II
Pentium
MMX
Pentium Pro
Pentium
DATE MANUFACTURER SPEED (MHZ)
NUMBER OF TRANSISTORS
2000 Intel
1999 Intel
800 and up
500-1000(1G)
25.4-60 million
9.5-28 million
1999 Intel
1998 Intel
1998 Intel
400-1000 (1G)
266-633
400-450
9.5 - 28 million
19 million
7.5-27.4 million
1999
1999
1998
1998
1997
1997
AMD
AMD
AMD
AMD
Intel
Intel
500-1100(1.1G)
400-450
366-533
300
233-450
166-233
22 million
21.3 million
9.3 million
8.8 million
7.5 million
4.5 million
1995
Intel
1993 Intel
150-200)
5.5 million
75-200
3.3 million
Manufacturing strategies for making
faster processors is the process.
Let see processes of making
microprocessors .
Silicon Wafers cut from an ingot of
pure silicon, are used by Intel to
make microprocessors.
Silicon, the primary ingredient of beach sand, is a
semiconductor of electricity.
Semiconductors are materials that can be altered
to be either a conductor or an insulator.
Chemicals and gases are used
throughout the chip-making process.
Some, like hexamethyldisilazane, are complex
and difficult to pronounce.
Others, such as boron, are simple elements
found in the Periodic Table of the Elements.
Metals, such as aluminum and copper,
are used to conduct the electricity
throughout the microprocessor.
Gold is also used to connect the actual chip to
its package.
Ultraviolet (UV) Light has very short
wavelengths and is just beyond the
violet end of the visible spectrum.
UV light is used to expose patterns on the layers
of the microprocessor in a process much like
photography.
Masks used in the chip-making
process are like stencils.
When used with UV light, masks create the
various circuit patterns on each layer of the
microprocessor.
Fabrication
Microprocessors are built in layers
on a silicon wafer through various
processes using chemicals, gases,
and light.
Although several microprocessors are built on
a single wafer, in this example , only a small
piece of a microprocessor is considered .
On the wafer, the first layer of
silicon dioxide is grown by
exposing it to extreme heat
and gas.
This growth is similar to the way rust grows on
metal when exposed to water.
The silicon dioxide on the wafer, however, grows
much faster and is too thin to be seen by the
naked eye.
The wafer is then coated
with a substance called
photoresist.
Photoresist becomes soluble when
exposed to ultraviolet light.
Layering
In a process called photolithography,
ultraviolet light is then passed through
a patterned mask, or stencil, onto the
silicon wafer.
The mask protects parts of the wafer from the light.
The light turns the exposed areas into a gooey layer of
photoresist. Each layer on the microprocessor uses a
mask with a different pattern.
Etching
The gooey photoresist is completely
dissolved by a solvent. This reveals a
pattern of photoresist made by the
mask on the silicon dioxide.
The revealed silicon dioxide is etched
away with chemicals.
The rest of the photoresist is removed.
This process leaves ridges of silicon
dioxide on the silicon wafer base.
Layers
To begin another layer, a second,
thinner layer of silicon dioxide is
grown over the ridges and etched
areas of the wafer base.
Then, a layer of polysilicon and another layer
of photoresist are applied.
Ultraviolet light is then passed
through a second mask, exposing
a new pattern on the photoresist..
The photoresist is dissolved with
solvent to expose the polysilicon
and silicon dioxide, which are then
etched away with chemicals.
The remaining photoresist is
removed, leaving ridges of
polysilicon and silicon dioxide.
Ion implantation (also called doping)
The exposed areas of the silicon wafer
are bombarded with various chemical
impurities called ions. .
Ions are implanted in the silicon wafer to alter the way
silicon in these areas conducts electricity.
Layers upon Layers
The layering and masking processes
are repeated, creating windows that
allow for connections to be made
between the layers.
Atoms of metal are deposited on the
wafer, filling the windows. Another
masking and etching stage leaves strips
of the metal that make the electrical
connections.
Roughly 20 layers are connected to form the
microprocessor's circuitry in a 3-dimensional
structure. The exact number of layers on a
wafer depends on the design of the
microprocessor.
Multiple Processors
So far, we've built only a tiny portion of a
microprocessor. In reality, making microprocessors
is much more complex, demanding more than 250
steps. Consequently, hundreds of identical
microprocessors are created in batches on a single
wafer.
On the wafer, the microscopic circuitry of
each and every microprocessor is tested.
Then the wafer is cut with a diamond saw,
separa
Processes to improve CPU speed
1
Find better materials
2. Photolithography - use “smaller”
light .
3. Find better conducting metal
Silicon is the best known
semiconductor today for
microprocessor fabrication
Something with low diaelectric
constant lower than silicon dioxide
Lithography :
Optical Lithography
Ultra Violet Lithography
Electron Lithograpgy
SCALPEL
SCALPEL, for "scattering with
angular limitation projection
electron beam lithography", is a
technology based on electron beam
lithography
Copper for interconnections
1.
Copper conducts electron better
2.
Require less power than aluminium
3.
Copper operates at faster speeds
than aluminium:
The fastest CPU available in the market
today is Pentium 4 , 1.8 Giga Herzt.
In august 2000, IBM demonstrated a 2GHz
pentium 4 chip .
The is based on an entirely new
microarchitecture design .
Nanotube
( 1999 )
Carbon nanotubes are rolled-up sheets
of graphite only few angstroms in
diameter (about 10 Atoms )
It is single molecul 500 times smaller
than silicon .
Radiate less heat compared to silicon
Uses less electrical power
Megabait
IBM cipta litar komputer molekul
Dalam usaha mencapai sasaran yang begitu lama
dicari-cari dalam penyelidikan pengkomputeran, para
saintis telah erjaya mencipta litar komputer
berasaskan satu molekul tunggal, yang diramalkan
akan mencetuskan pembinaan cip-cip jauh lebih kecil
dan pantas tetapi hanya memerlukan kuasa janaan
amat kecil.
26 August 2001 ( Sunday last week . See Megabyte
Utusan Malaysia 30 Ogos 2001 )
IBM anounced their scientist has fabricated a logic
circuit base on micro cylindrical structure from
carbon atoms 100,000 smaller than human hair .
They use nanotube to make NOT gate , the basic
cuircuit for making processor
WHAT AFTER NANOTUBE ?
There are rooms for achieving higher
speeds in the future. An analysts say the new
chip should be able to reach speeds of 10
gigahertz or so in five years.
So if you intend to buy a new computer, wait
until then.
Think about it
Does the user demand for
higher speed
OR
The demand is imposed
to the user?