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Notre Dame extended Research Community History of Machines: Big to Small Michael Crocker Valerie Goss Patrick Mooney Rebecca Quardokus 1 Early “Computer” – 19th Century Loom Joseph Marie Jacquard Programmable with punch cards 2 Difference Engine/Analytic Engine Charles Babbage (1822) 3 ENIAC – First Electrical Computer (1946) Programmable with switches and cables 4 Smaller and Smaller Devices Vacuum Tube (1946) Discrete Transistors (1955) Integrated Circuits (1960) 5 Computers Since 1971 (Intel 4004) 2-3 Thousand Transistors 1-2 Billion Transistors 92 Thousand Instr/Sec 147 Billion Instr/Sec 10 Megabytes 1 Terabyte 6 Moore’s Law A predicted trend Predicted in 1965 (will last at least 10 years) Density doubles every two years Also applies to speed and storage capacity Prediction has lasted for 40+ years With some minor exceptions Transistors are very small now (<100nm) Required Nanotechnology Research! Exponential has lasted for 100+ years 7 Speed and Cost 8 45nm Node Transistors (2007) Well inside the nano realm! Fabrication of these transistors requires very precise lithography 9 Fabrication Photolithography 32nm half pitch: ~$4 Billion for fab facility Double patterning, Immersion lithography Electron Beam Lithography A few nanometer feature size patterning Limitation is scattering, not the beam! Takes a long time, not mass production Self Assembly Not precise control Instead, automatic arrangement 10 Self Assembly 11 Self Assembly with DNA! Using DNA, it should be possible to fabricate many patterns without lithography 12 Imaging is Very Important Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Atomic Force Microscope (AFM) Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) Why are these important? Nano devices are unknown behaviors, properties, & uses All at the nano-scale Biological processes could tell us so much! 13