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PSYCHOLOGY
(8th Edition)
David Myers
PowerPoint Slides
Aneeq Ahmad
Henderson State University
Worth Publishers, © 2006
1
Memory
Chapter 9
2
Memory
Memory is the basis for knowing your friends,
your neighbors, the English language, the
national anthem, and yourself.
If memory was nonexistent, everyone would be
a stranger to you; every language foreign; every
task new; and even you yourself would be a
stranger.
3
MEMORY
• If technological advances would allow it,
would you ever want to intentionally get rid
of memories of some specific events?
• Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind
addressed this question
4
The Phenomenon of Memory
Memory is any indication that
learning has persisted over time.
It is our ability to store and
retrieve information.
5
MEMORY
• Take out a blank sheet of appear and write
down all the responses that come to mind in
the order in which they occur. Incorrect
responses are as important as correct ones in
illustrating the nature of memory.
• How many __________ can you remember?
6
RECOGNITION
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Grouchy
Gabby
Lazy
Smiley
Bashful
Shy
Shorty
Sniffy
Doc
Dumpy
Sneezy
Sleepy
Grumpy
Hopeful
Teach
Dopey
Happy
Puffy
Stubby
Fearful
Pop
Jumpy
Cheerful
Droopy
Nifty
Wishful
Wheezy
7
From most to least likely to be
recalled:
Sleepy
Dopey
Grumpy
Sneezy
Happy
Doc
Bashful
Why?
8
7 DWARFS
• Difficulty of the task (information
processing) – How engaged were you?
• Tip-of-the tongue phenomenon (TOT)
– Ex. Character in book – failure to encode
• Organization of memory by sound, letter,
and meaning (runs)
• Recall (encoded well) vs recognition (not
encoded well)
9
The Case of Clive Wearing
Clive Wearing
Clive Wearing Part 2
• What does Clive have difficulty remembering?
• What does Clive have no difficulty remembering?
• What does this case study reveal about memory?
(Facts vs Procedural things)
10
Flashbulb Memory
Ruters/ Corbis
A unique and highly emotional moment may
give rise to a clear, strong, and persistent
memory called flashbulb memory. However,
this memory is not free from errors.
President Bush being told of 9/11 attack.
11
FLASHBULB MEMORY
• Write down in a sentence or two your three
most vivid memories.
• Do any of the following events have a
flashbulb quality for you?
–
–
–
–
A car accident you were in or witnessed
Your junior prom (if you went or not)
An early romantic experience
A time you had to speak in front of an audience
12
FLASHBULB MEMORY
CONTINUED
– The moment you opened your SAT scores
– The first time your parents left you alone
– Your thirteenth birthday.
What qualities do flashbulb memories share?
13
FLASHBULB MEMORIES
• Flashbulb memories tend to be biologically
significant, novel, personally meaningful,
emotional, or consequential.
• Our recall includes aspects that are unrelated to
the meaningfulness of the event itself.
• Flashbulb memories are not necessarily accurate
even though the person believes they are.
14
Stages of Memory
Keyboard
(Encoding)
Disk
(Storage)
Sequential Process
Monitor
(Retrieval)
15
Information Processing
Frank Wartenberg/ Picture Press/
Corbis
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
The Atkinson-Schiffrin (1968) three-stage
model of memory includes a) sensory memory,
b) short-term memory, and c) long-term
memory.
16
Problems with the Model
1. Some information skips the first two stages
and enters long-term memory automatically.
2. Since we cannot focus all the sensory
information in the environment, we select
information (through attention) that is
important to us. (selective att., cocktail party
effect, gorilla ex., diff. for everyone)
3. The nature of short-term memory is more
complex.
17
Working Memory
Alan Baddeley (2002) proposes that working memory
contains auditory and visual processing controlled by
the central executive through an episodic buffer.
18
19
Brain decides
20
YOU decide
21
Encoding: Getting Information In
How We Encode
1. Some information (route to your school) is
automatically processed.
2. However, new or unusual information
(friend’s new cell-phone number) requires
attention and effort.
22
Automatic Processing
We process an enormous amount of information
effortlessly, unconsciously, such as the
following:
1. Space: While reading a textbook, you
automatically encode the place of a picture
on a page.
2. Time: We unintentionally note the events
that take place in a day.
3. Frequency: You effortlessly keep track of
things that happen to you.
This is helped by parallel processing
23
(simultaneous)
Effortful Processing
© Bananastock/ Alamy
Spencer Grant/ Photo Edit
Committing novel
information to memory
requires effort just like
learning a concept from
a textbook. Such
processing leads to
durable and accessible
memories.
24
MEMORY ACTIVITY
Memorize one of the following lists of nonsense syllables using rehearsal:
fet
lah
rup
nol
wep
rew
niv
wez
wim
kij
lik
coz
giw
qiz
ryp
wis
sek
wal
qut
fis
How many repetitions were necessary before you memorized the list?
25
Rehearsal
Effortful learning
usually requires
rehearsal or conscious
repetition.
http://www.isbn3-540-21358-9.de
Ebbinghaus studied
rehearsal by using
nonsense syllables
(why nonsense
syllables?): TUV YOF
GEK XOZ
Hermann Ebbinghaus
(1850-1909)
26
Rehearsal and Retention Curve
The more times the
nonsense syllables were
practiced on Day 1,
the fewer repetitions
were required to
remember them on Day
2. (Method of Savings
is the difference) (next)
Overlearning increases
retention (12 Days of Christmas).
27
Method of Savings
• Day 1 – takes you 20 times to memorize
• Day 2 – takes you 15 times to memorize
• Method of Savings =
5
Overlearning improves it further !!
(12 Days of Christmas – next)
28
12 Days of Christmas
What are the gifts for each
of the 12 Days of Christmas?
29
12 days of Christmas
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Partridge in a pear tree
Turtle doves
French hens
Colly birds
Gold rings
Geese a laying
7. Swans a singing
8. Maids a milking
9. Ladies dancing
10. Lords a leaping
11. Pipers piping
12. Drummers drumming
30
Activity: Paragraph 1 / List 1
John
31
Memory Effects
1. Next-in-line-Effect: When you are so
anxious about being next that you cannot
remember what the person just before you
in line says, but you can recall what other
people around you say.
2. Spacing Effect: We retain information better
when we rehearse over time.
3. Serial Position Effect: When your recall is
better for first and last items on a list, but
poor for middle items.
(“Primacy” = 1st, “Recency” = last
32
Spacing Effect
Distributing rehearsal (spacing effect) is better
than practicing all at once. Those who learn
quickly also forget quickly. Robert Frost’s poem
could be memorized with fair ease if spread over
time.
Examples of spacing effect?
33
Acquainted with the Night
by: Robert Frost
I have been one acquainted with the night.
I have walked out in rain -- and back in rain.
I have outwalked the furthest city light.
I have looked down the saddest city lane.
I have passed by the watchman on his beat
And dropped my eyes, unwilling to explain.
I have stood still and stopped the sound of feet
When far away an interrupted cry
Came over houses from another street,
But not to call me back or say good-bye;
And further still at an unearthly height,
O luminary clock against the sky
Proclaimed the time was neither wrong nor right.
I have been one acquainted with the night.
34
SP Effect
• Memorize the list of capitals.
• Mute screen
35
Serial Position Effect
• Memorize the list of capitals (mute first):
• Primacy: Oslo, Ankara, Nairobi,
Montevideo, Lhasa
• Worst recall: Canberra, Lisbon, Bucharest,
Port-au-Prince, Sofia
• Recency: Seoul, Nicosia, Managua, Bogota,
Caracas
36
SERIAL POSITION EFFECT
• Why does primacy occur?
(start well, little interference)
• Why does recency occur?
(still in working memory)
37
Serial Position Effect
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
TUV
ZOF
GEK
WAV
XOZ
TIK
FUT
WIB
SAR
POZ
REY
GIJ
Better recall
Poor recall
Better recall
38
Activity: Paragraph 2 / List 2
Mary
39
Notice anything?
• Most adjectives remembered about John are
positive.
• Most adjectives remembered about Mary
are negative.
• Why? PRIMACY
40
ACTIVITIES
• Handout 9-4
– Number from 1 to 18 on a blank sheet of paper.
– Circle the number corresponding to the
adjective if you feel it is self-descriptive (DO
NOT WRITE DOWN ANY ADJECTIVE)
– Step Two
– Read through directions on handout 9-4;
complete
• What do these activities show us about
encoding?
41
What We Encode
1. Encoding by meaning
2. Encoding by images
3. Encoding by organization
42
Depth of Processing Activity
• Rows A: Count how many words have a
POSITIVE or NEGATIVE connotation to
them.
• Rows B: Count how many words have an
“E” in them.
43
DEPTH OF PROCESSING
1. queen
2. bread
3. west
4. boy
5. cold
6. east
7. play
13. chain 19. hot
8 butter 14. love 20. lamp
9. thin
15. king 21. bottle
10. table 16. lake 22. candy
11. girl
17. hat
23. photo
12. north 18. pencil 24. belt
(go to previous slide)
44
Questions:
1. Which group tends to remember
more?
2. How many students do you know
that just “count the E’s” when it
comes to school work?
45
Craig and Tulving – Levels of
Processing
• Processing a word deeply- by its meaning
(semantic encoding – deep processing) produces
better recognition than shallow processing (by
appearance or sound)
• Self-reference effect “about you”
–
–
–
–
–
Link to what you know
Make up sentences
Manipulate material in your mind
Ask questions
Put you in the picture
46
Encoding Meaning
Q: Did the word begin
with a capital letter?
Structural
Encoding
Shallow
Q: Did the word rhyme
with the word
“weight”?
Phonemic
Encoding
Intermediate
Q: Would the word fit
in the sentence?
He met a __________
in the street.
Semantic
Encoding
Deep
Craik and Lockhart (1972)
47
Results
48
“The procedure is quite simple, First you
arrange things into different groups. Of
course, one pile may be sufficient depending
on how much there is to do. After the
procedure is completed, one arranges the
materials into different groups again. Then
they can be put into their appropriate places.
Eventually they will be used once more and
the whole cycle will then have to be repeated.
However, that is part of life.”
49
Can you remember the procedure?
What is this procedure?
50
Visual Encoding
Mental pictures (imagery) are a powerful aid to
effortful processing, especially when combined
with semantic encoding. Rosy retrospection.
Both photos: Ho/AP Photo
Showing adverse effects of tanning and smoking
in a picture may be more powerful than simply talking about it.
51
Mnemonics
Imagery is at the heart of many memory aids.
Mnemonic techniques use vivid imagery in
aiding memory.
1. Method of Loci
2. Link Method –
Peg word system
52
Method of Loci
List of Items
Imagined Locations
Charcoal
Pens
Bed Sheets
Hammer
.
.
.
Rug
Backyard
Study
Bedroom
Garage
.
.
.
Living Room
53
KEYWORD METHOD
(you have this already from Ch. 2)
• Use keyword method to learn parts of the nervous
system and their functions.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Broca’s Area
Parietal Lobe
Hypothalamus
Cerebral Cortex
Amygdala
Frontal Association Areas
Corpus Callosum
Left Hemisphere
Temporal Lobes
Hippocampus
54
Link Method
List of Items
Newspaper
Shaving cream
Pen
Umbrella
.
.
.
Lamp
Involves forming a mental image of items to be
remembered in a way that links them together.
55
Organizing Information for
Encoding
Break down complex information into broad
concepts and further subdivide them into
categories and subcategories.
1. Chunking
2. Hierarchy
56
Chunking
Organizing items into a familiar, manageable
unit. Try to remember the numbers below.
1-7-7-6-1-4-9-2-1-8-1-2-1-9-4-1
If you are well versed with American history,
chunk the numbers together and see if you
can recall them better. 1776 1492 1812 1941.
57
Chunking
Acronyms are another way of chunking
information to remember it.
HOMES = Huron, Ontario, Michigan, Erie, Superior
PEMDAS = Parentheses, Exponent, Multiply, Divide, Add, Subtract
ROY G. BIV = Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet
58
Sports Ex.: The Basic Bunt Play
59
Hierarchy
Complex information broken down into broad
concepts and further subdivided into categories
and subcategories. Increases the efficiency of
retrieval
60
Encoding Summarized in a
Hierarchy
61
Storage: Retaining Information
Storage is at the heart of memory. Three
stores of memory are shown below:
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
62
Sensory Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
63
Whole Report
(Iconic Memory PsychSim)
***Sperling ***(1960)
R G T
F M Q
L Z S
“Recall”
RTMZ
(44% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
The exposure time for the photographic or picture image
stimulus is so small
that items cannot be rehearsed.
64
Partial Report
S X T
J R S
P K Y
Low Tone
Medium Tone
High Tone
“Recall”
JRS
(100% recall)
50 ms (1/20 second)
Sperling (1960) argued that sensory memory capacity
was larger than what was originally thought.
65
Time Delay
A D I
N L V
O G H
Low Tone
Time
Delay
“Recall”
Medium Tone
N__
(33% recall)
High Tone
50 ms (1/20 second)
66
Sensory Memory
Percent Recognized
The longer the delay, the greater the memory loss.
80
60
40
20
0.15
0.30
0.50
Time (Seconds)
1.00
67
Sensory Memories
The duration of sensory memory varies for the
different senses.
Iconic
0.5 sec. long
Echoic
3-4 sec. long
Hepatic
< 1 sec. long
68
WORKING MEMORY
• Partner up with another student
• Who will be the first subject?
• Be careful to read the numbers with the same tone
of voice and with equal pacing.
• Record a + for a correct response, a – for an
incorrect response.
• When you have recorded 2 –’s in a row, stop. Go
back to the last correct response and count how
many numbers were in the string, this is your
partner’s score. Go on to do the letters.
• Reverse roles; start from the bottom.
69
Working Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
70
Working Memory
Working memory, the new name for short-term
memory, has a limited capacity (7±2) and a short
duration (20 seconds).
Sir George Hamilton observed that he could accurately remember up
to 7 beans thrown on the floor. If there were more beans, he guessed.
71
Capacity
The Magical Number Seven, Plus or
Minus Two: Some Limits on Our
Capacity for Processing Information
(1956).
Ready?
MUTGIKTLRSYP
You should be able to
recall 7±2 letters.
George Miller
72
Chunking
The capacity of the working memory may be
increased by “Chunking.”
F-B-I-T-W-A-C-I-A-I-B-M
FBI TWA CIA IBM
4 chunks
73
Duration
Brown/Peterson and Peterson (1958/1959)
measured the duration of working memory by
manipulating rehearsal.
CHJ
MKT
HIJ
547
547
544
541
…
CH??
The duration of the working memory is about
20 sec.
74
Working Memory Duration
75
Long-Term Memory
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
Long-term
Memory
Encoding
Events
Encoding
Retrieval
Retrieval
76
Long-Term Memory
Unlimited capacity store. Estimates on capacity
range from 1000 billion to 1,000,000 billion bits of
information (Landauer, 1986).
R.J. Erwin/ Photo Researchers
The Clark’s nutcracker can locate 6,000 caches of
buried pine seeds during winter and spring.
77
Memory Feats
78
Memory Stores
Feature
Sensory
Memory
Working
Memory
LTM
Encoding
Copy
Phonemic
Semantic
Capacity
Unlimited
7±2 Chunks
Very Large
Duration
0.25 sec.
20 sec.
Years
79
Storing Memories in the Brain
1. Through electrical stimulation of the brain,
Wilder Penfield (1967) concluded that old
memories were etched into the brain.
2. Loftus and Loftus (1980) reviewed
Penfield's data and showed that only a
handful of brain stimulated patients
reported flashbacks.
3. Using rats, Lashley (1950) suggested that
even after removing parts of the brain, the
animals retain partial memory of the maze.
SIGNIFICANCE: memory is dispersed.
80
SYNAPATIC CHANGES DURING
MEMORY FORMATION
• Memory begins as neural impulses that
leave permanent neural traces
• Synapses are the key area
81
Synaptic Changes
In Aplysia, Kandel and Schwartz (1982) showed
that serotonin release from neurons increased
after conditioning.
Photo: Scientific American
82
Synaptic Changes
Both Photos: From N. Toni et al., Nature, 402, Nov. 25 1999. Courtesy of Dominique Muller
Long-Term Potentiation
(LTP) refers to synaptic
enhancement after
learning (Lynch, 2002).
An increase in
neurotransmitter
(serotonin) release or
receptors on the
receiving neuron
indicates strengthening
of synapses.
83
CURRENT RESEARCH ON
DRUGS TO ENHANCE MEMORY
• FOCUS:
– Boost in production of the protein CREB
(response element-binding protein) which
can switch genes on or off to help reshape
synapses and consolidate STM into LTM
– Boost glutamate which helps in synaptic
communication (LTP)
84
SYNAPTIC CHANGES DURING
MEMORY FORMATION
• Explains why a person who is knocked
unconscious has no memory of events
leading up to injury: information in STM
did not have time to consolidate into LTM
85
The Gift of Endless Memory
• Autobiographical Memory
• Watch Part II on your own!
86
Stress Hormones & Memory
Heightened emotions (stress-related or
otherwise) make for stronger memories.
Continued stress may disrupt memory.
Scott Barbour/ Getty Images
87
Stronger emotions make for stronger
memories.
• Some stress hormones boost learning and
retention.
– Make glucose more available.
– Amygdala (in limbic system) boosts activity
– Prolonged stress is like acid, it corrodes neural
connections and shrinks the hippocampus
88
IMPLICIT VS EXPLICIT
(procedural vs. declarative)
• Familiar with scene due to some previous
event (implicit memory created) but cannot
recall specific details (explicit memory)
Example:
89
DEVELOP INTO A CHART THAT SHOWS
THE RELATIONSHIPS: (handout)
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
A. Skills - motor and cognitive
B. Processed in hippocampus
C. Implicit (procedural)
D. Types of long-term memories
E. Facts - general knowledge
F. Explicit (declarative)
G. Classical and operational conditioning effects
H. Processed, in part, by cerebellum
I. Personally experienced events
90
Storing Implicit & Explicit Memories
Explicit Memory refers to facts and experiences that one
can consciously know and declare. Implicit memory
involves learning an action while the individual does not
know or declare what she knows.
91
Hippocampus
Hippocampus – a neural center in the limbic
system that processes explicit memories.
Weidenfield & Nicolson archives
92
Anterograde Amnesia
After losing his hippocampus in surgery, patient
Henry M. (HM) remembered everything before the
operation but cannot make new memories. We call
this anterograde amnesia. What is retrograde
amnesia?
Anterograde
Amnesia
(HM)
Memory Intact
No New Memories
Surgery
93
Retrograde Amnesia
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2tqK_3m
KQUw
94
Implicit Memory
HM is unable to make new memories that are
declarative (explicit), but he can form new
memories that are procedural (implicit).
A
B
C
HM learned the Tower of Hanoi (game) after his surgery. Each time
he plays it, he is unable to remember the fact that he has already
played the game.
95
Cerebellum
Cerebellum – a neural center in the hindbrain
that processes implicit memories.
96
RETRIEVAL
Activity: Handout 9-7
97
Retrieval: Getting Information Out
Retrieval involves …
Recall, Recognition, & Relearning
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
Spanky’s Yearbook Archive
98
Measures of Memory
In recognition, the person must identify an item
amongst other choices. (A multiple-choice test
requires recognition.)
1. Name the capital of France.
a.
b.
c.
d.
Brussels
Rome
London
Paris
99
Measures of Memory
In recall, the person must retrieve information
using effort. (A fill-in-the blank test requires
recall.)
1. The capital of France is ______.
100
Measures of Memory
In relearning, the individual shows how much
time (or effort) is saved when learning material
for the second time.
List
List
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
Jet
Dagger
Tree
Kite
…
Silk
Frog
Ring
It took 10 trials
to learn this list
1 day later
Saving
It took 5 trials
to learn the list
Relearning
Trials
X 100
Relearning
Trials
Original
Trials
10
5
10
X 100
50%
101
Retrieval Cues
Memories are held in storage by a web of
associations. These associations are like
anchors that help retrieve memory. The best
retrieval cues come from associations formed at
the time we encode a memory.
water
smel
l
fire
smoke
Fire Truck
heat
hose
truck
red
102
Priming
To retrieve a specific memory from the web of
associations, you must first activate one of the
strands that leads to it. This process is called
PRIMING.
Example: Activity 9-7 Handout
103
PRIMING
• Often unconscious
• Memoryless memory (“invisible memory”)
• It predisposes our interpretation.
(remember the pre-photos experiment?)
• Harvard implicit test
https://implicit.harvard.edu
104
Context Effects
Scuba divers recall more words underwater if they
learned the list underwater, while they recall more
words on land if they learned that list on land
(Godden & Baddeley, 1975).
Fred McConnaughey/ Photo Researchers
105
Déja Vu – explained by context
effects
Déja Vu means “I've experienced this before.”
Cues from the current situation may
unconsciously trigger retrieval of an earlier
similar experience (esp when stressed).
© The New Yorker Collection, 1990. Leo Cullum from
cartoonbank.com. All Rights Reserved
106
DÉJÀ VU EXPERIENCE
• Decreases with age and increases with
education and income
• Experienced mainly when people are
indoors, engaged in leisure activities or
relaxing, and in the company of friends
• Is relatively brief - 10 to 30 seconds- more
frequent in the evenings and on weekends
107
DÉJÀ VU EXPERIENCE
• Is responded to more positively than
negatively, with people typically indicating
they are surprised, curious, or confused
• More common in person who travel,
remember their dreams, and have liberal
political and religious beliefs
108
X DÉJÀ VU EXPERIENCE EXPLANATIONS
• BIOLOGICAL DYSFUNCTION
• DIVIDED PERCEPTION
• IMPLICIT FAMILIARITY IN THE
ABSENCE OF EXPLICIT
RECOLLECTION
109
X BIOLOGICAL
DYSFUNCTION
• Incoming sensory data follow several
different pathways to the brain
• A neurochemical event that slightly alters or
delays the transmission speed in one
pathway could cause the brain to interpret
the data as two events
110
X DIVIDED ATTENTION
• Similar to inattentional blindness perceptual experience can be split into two
parts, if attention is divided
111
Context Effects
After learning to move a mobile by kicking,
infants most strongly respond when retested in
the same context (external environment) rather
than in a different context (Butler & RoveeCollier, 1989).
Courtesy of Carolyn Rovee-Collier,
Rutgers University
112
X RETRIEVAL
• Make two columns, number each from one
to ten
• In the first column list 10 vegetables
• In the second column list 10 movies
113
X RETRIEVAL
• Arrange your two lists in a numbered, alphabetical
order on a second sheet of paper
• On the second sheet rank each item from 1 to 10
with respect to the other members of the list from
your most favorite to your least favorite
• Transfer each of the ranks back to the original list.
Compare and draw conclusions.
114
Moods and Memories
We usually recall experiences that are consistent
with our current mood. Emotions, or moods,
serve as retrieval cues.
Jorgen Schytte/ Still Pictures
115
MOODS AND MEMORIES
• Events in the past may have aroused a specific
emotion that later can prime us to recall its
associated events
• State-dependency memory
(Internal environment – drunk example)
• Mood-congruent memories: the tendency to recall
experiences that are consistent with one’s current
good or bad mood
• Mood primes us to interpret others’ behavior in
ways consistent with our emotions (moods thus
persist)
116
Forgetting
An inability to retrieve information due to
poor encoding, storage, or retrieval.
The ability to forget is adaptive. Explain.
Answer:
Forgetting is largely under your control!
117
SCHACTER’S SEVEN SINS OF
MEMORY
• 3 Sins of Forgetting
– Absentmindedness – details
• Thinking of something else when you lay down
your cell phone
– Transience – time
• Fading – failing to rehearse
– Blocking – inaccessibility
• Tip-of-the-Tongue – no rehearsing
118
SCHACTER’S SEVEN SINS OF
MEMORY – cont.
• 3 Sins of Distortion
– Misattribution – we get the source wrong
• movie scene vs reality
– Suggestibility – misinformation
• “When did your abuse start?”
– Bias
• 1 Sin of Intrusion
– Persistence – unwanted memories (attacked)
119
Encoding Failure
We cannot remember what we do not
encode (example: change blindness)
As we age, encoding efficiency declines.
120
X EARLIEST
RECOLLECTIONS
• Write out your earliest memory. Describe
the memory in detail.
121
X EARLIEST
RECOLLECTIONS
• According to Alfred Adler our early
recollections are the most trustworthy way
of exploring personality because they often
encapsulate a person’s life theme or script.
According to Adler the present determines
the past. There are no chance memories.
122
X Consider ten questions to examine
their early recollections in light of
Adler’s theory:
1. Who is present in your early recollection – mom,
dad, siblings, friends, strangers?
2. Who is not present?
3. How are different people portrayed-basic
thoughts and feelings?
4. What is the world like-friendly, hostile,
cooperative, exciting?
5. What is your role or behavior – helping, passive,
sick, dependent?
123
X
6. What is the outcome of your behavior – success,
punishment?
7. What is your primary social attitude – I or we?
8. What is your dominant emotion-happy, worried,
fearful, guilty, proud?
9. What is your primary motive- to help, to gain
attention, to exert power?
10. What are the underlying themes, expressed as a
single sentence? For example, I need to rescue
people.
124
X ENCODING FAILURE
• Draw two large empty circles, at least four
inches in diameter on a blank sheet of
paper.
• Draw from memory both sides of a U.S.
penny
• Include all the pictorial and alphanumeric
detail you can.
125
X ENCODING FAILURE
• SCORE YOUR PENNY DRAWINGS:
– One point for whether each of the nine features
is present
– One point for whether each is located on the
correct side
– One point for each feature that was drawn in
the correct position on the circular area
126
X NINE FEATURES
Top Side:
Head (Lincoln’s profile, right side)
In God We Trust
Liberty
Year
Bottom Side
Lincoln Memorial
United States of America
E Pluribus Unum
One Cent
127
X Which penny is real?
128
Storage Decay
Poor durability of stored memories leads to
their decay. Ebbinghaus showed this with
his “forgetting curve.”
129
Retaining Spanish
Bahrick (1984) showed a similar pattern of
forgetting and retaining over 50 years.
Andrew Holbrooke/ Corbis
130
Retrieval Failure
Although the information is retained in the
memory store, it cannot be accessed.
Tip-of-the-tongue (TOT) is a retrieval failure
phenomenon. Given a cue (What makes blood cells
red?) the subject says the word begins with an H
(hemoglobin).
131
X Proactive and Retroactive
Interference Activity
Step 1
• Groups 1 & 2—Study List A for
30 seconds.
• Groups 3 and 4—do math
problems for 30 seconds.
132
X Proactive and Retroactive
Interference Activity
Step 2
• Everyone study List B for 30
seconds.
133
X Proactive and Retroactive
Interference Activity
Step 3
• Groups 1 and 3—Study List C
for 30 seconds.
• Groups 2 & 4—do math
problems for 30 seconds
134
X Proactive and Retroactive
Interference Activity
Step 4
Everyone recall list B
135
X Proactive and Retroactive
Interference Activity: Results
1
2
3
4
• Group 4: no
interference
• Group 3: retroactive
interference
• Group 2: proactive
interference
• Group 1: proactive and
retroactive interference
136
Proactive and Retroactive
Interference Activity
• Proactive interference = old interferes
with new
• Retroactive interference = new
interferes with old
137
Interference
Learning some new information may disrupt
retrieval of other information.
138
Recap: Proactive and Retroactive Interference
• Proactive interference = old interferes
with new
• Retroactive interference = new
interferes with old
• Develop a memory retrieval cue for
retroactive vs proactive interference.
• P.O.R.N. (Proactive-Old-Retroactive-New)
139
Retroactive Interference
Sleep prevents retroactive interference. Therefore, it
leads to better recall. Based on Dallenbach
cockroach research!
140
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated Forgetting:
People unknowingly
revise their memories.
Culver Pictures
Repression: A defense
mechanism that banishes
anxiety-arousing
thoughts, feelings, and
memories from
consciousness.
Sigmund Freud
141
Why do we forget?
Forgetting can occur at
any memory stage. We
filter, alter, or lose
much information
during these stages.
142
X MEMORY TASK
• Listen carefully to the list of words as I
repeat them.
• List all the words you can remember.
143
X CONSTRUCTIVE
MEMORY
bulb
feather
glare
bright
calorie
night
shade
weight
heavy
diet
switch
thin
day
thunder
cotton
fluorescent
144
Memory Construction
While tapping our memories, we filter or fill in
missing pieces of information to make our
recall more coherent.
Misinformation Effect: Incorporating
misleading information into one's memory of
an event.
145
Misinformation and Imagination
Effects
Eyewitnesses reconstruct their memories when
questioned about the event.
Depiction of the actual accident.
146
Misinformation
Group A: How fast were the cars going
when they hit each other?
Group B: How fast were the cars going
when they smashed into each
other?
147
Memory Construction
A week later they were asked: Was there any
broken glass? Group B (smashed into) reported
more broken glass than Group A (hit).
Broken Glass? (%)
50
40
32
30
20
14
10
0
Group A (hit)
Group B (Smashed into)
Verb
148
Source Amnesia
Source Amnesia: Attributing an event to the
wrong source that we experienced, heard, read,
or imagined (misattribution).
149
X Memory Activity
Classroom Exercise: Hand-Out 9-9
150
Discerning True & False Memories
Just like true perception and illusion, real
memories and memories that seem real are
difficult to discern.
© Simon Niedsenthal
When students formed a happy or angry memory of
morphed (computer blended) faces, they made
the (computer assisted) faces (a), either happier or (b) angrier.
151
False Memories
Repressed or Constructed?
Some adults actually do forget childhood
episodes of abuse.
False Memory Syndrome
A condition in which a person’s identity and
relationships center around a false but strongly
believed memory of a traumatic experience,
which is sometimes induced by well-meaning
therapists.
152
Children’s Eyewitness Recall
Children’s eyewitness recall can be unreliable if
leading questions are posed. However, if
cognitive interviews are neutrally worded, the
accuracy of their recall increases. In cases of
sexual abuse, this usually suggests a lower
percentage of abuse.
153
Memories of Abuse
Are memories of abuse repressed or
constructed?
Many psychotherapists believe that early
childhood sexual abuse results in repressed
memories.
However, other psychologists question such
beliefs and think that such memories may be
constructed.
154
Constructed Memories
Loftus’ research shows that if false memories
(lost at the mall or drowned in a lake) are
implanted in individuals, they construct
(fabricate) their memories.
Don Shrubshell
155
Consensus on Childhood Abuse
Leading psychological associations of the world agree
on the following concerning childhood sexual abuse:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Injustice happens.
Incest and other sexual abuse happens.
People may forget.
Recovered memories are commonplace.
Recovered memories under hypnosis or drugs are
unreliable.
6. Memories of things happening before 3 years of age
are unreliable.
7. Memories, whether real or false, are emotionally
upsetting.
156
Improving Memory
1. Study repeatedly to boost long-term recall.
2. Spend more time rehearsing or actively
thinking about the material.
3. Make material personally meaningful.
4. Use mnemonic devices:



associate with peg words — something already
stored
make up a story
chunk — acronyms
157
Improving Memory
5. Activate retrieval cues — mentally recreate
the situation and mood.
6. Recall events while they are fresh — before
you encounter misinformation.
7. Minimize interference:
1.
2.
© LWA-Dann Tardiff/ Corbis
Test your own knowledge.
Rehearse and then determine what you do not
yet know.
158
MNEMONIC
• Develop a mnemonic or similar memory
technique to help you remember the
difference between:
– Retroactive and proactive interference
– Retrograde and anterograde amnesia
159