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Learning Three Kinds of Memory • Memory is the process by which we recollect prior experiences and information and skills learned in the past. • There are three different kinds of memory. Episodic Memory • Episodic memory is memory of a specific event. • A flashbulb memory is a memory of an important and intense event. • Examples of flashbulb memory: the memory of the terrorist attacks of 9/11 and the assassination of John F. Kennedy. Semantic Memory • Semantic memory is the memory of facts, words, and concepts. • Episodic and semantic memories are both examples of explicit memory, which is a memory of specific information. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Implicit Memory • Implicit memory is memory of things that are implied, or not clearly stated. • Implicit memory includes practiced skills and learned habits. • Skills learned often stay with people for a lifetime, even if they do not use them very often. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Encoding • The translation of information into a form in which it can be used is called encoding. • Encoding is the first stage of processing information. Visual and Acoustic Codes Semantic Codes • One type of code is visual. • Another type of code is semantic. • People use visual codes when they form a mental picture. • A semantic code represents information in terms of its meaning. • Another type of code is acoustic. • People use acoustic codes when they use sound. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Storage • Storage is the maintenance of encoded information. • It is the second process of memory. Maintenance Rehearsal Elaborative Rehearsal • Mechanical or rote repetition of information in order to keep from forgetting it is called maintenance rehearsal. • A more effective way to remember new information is to relate it to information you already know. • The more time spent on it, the longer the information will be remembered. • This method is called elaborative rehearsal. • It is widely used in education. • It does not connect information to past learning and is therefore a poor way to put information in permanent storage. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Organizational Systems Filing Errors • Stored memories become organized and arranged in the mind for future use. • Our ability to remember is subject to error. • Errors can occur because we file information incorrectly. • In some ways, the mind is like a storehouse of files and file cabinets in which you store what you learn and what you need to remember. • Your memory organizes information into classes according to common features. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Retrieval • Retrieval consists of locating stored information and returning it to conscious thought. • Retrieval is the third stage of processing information. Context-Dependent Memory State-Dependent Memory • Context-dependent memories are • Memories that are retrieved because information that is more easily retrieved the mood in which they were originally in the context or situation in which it was encoded is recreated are called stateencoded and stored. dependent memories. • Such memories are dependent on the place where they were encoded and stored. • Memory is better when people are in the same mood as when the information was acquired. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning On the Tip of the Tongue • Trying to retrieve memories that are not very well organized or are incomplete can be highly frustrating. • Sometimes we are so close to retrieving the information that it seems as though the information is on the “tip of the tongue.” • Psychologists call this phenomenon the feeling-of-knowing experience. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Current Research in Psychology Unreliable Memories, Unreliable Witnesses “Misleading details can be planted into a person’s memory for an event that actually occurred. It is also possible to plant entirely false memories,” according to Elizabeth Loftus and Daniel Bernstein (Bernstein et al., 2005). • Loftus has shown that false memories exist and also that feeling sure about a memory does not prove the memory is a reliable one. • One factor in false memory is source confusion. • Psychological research is helping train police investigators to avoid using interviewing techniques that can mislead witnesses. • One example is pressing for more additional details when a witness has already expressed uncertainty. • If a person has a “gist trace” of a memory rather than a “verbatim” trace, the memory is likely to be false or inaccurate. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Sensory Memory • Sensory memory is the first stage of information storage. • It consists of the immediate, initial recording of data that enter through the senses. • Psychologists believe that each of the five senses has a register. • Mental pictures we form of visual stimuli are called icons, which are held in a sensory register called iconic memory. • Iconic memories are very brief. • The rare ability to remember visual stimuli over long periods of time is called eidetic imagery. • Mental traces of sounds are held in a mental sensory register called echoic memory. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Short-Term Memory • Also called working memory, short-term memory is memory that holds information briefly before it is either stored in long-term memory or is forgotten. The Primacy and Recency Effects Chunking • The tendency to recall the last item or items in a series is called the recency effect. • Psychologist George Miller found that the average person’s short-term memory can hold a list of seven items. • The primacy effect is the tendency to recall the initial item or items in a series. • The organization of items into familiar or manageable units is called chunking. • There is no definitive explanation of the primacy effect or the recency effect. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Interference • Interference occurs when new information appears in short-term memory and takes the place of what was already there. • Short-term memory is a temporary solution to the problem of remembering information. • It is the bridge between sensory memory and long-term memory. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Long-Term Memory • Long-term memory is the third and final stage of information storage. • It is the stage of memory capable of large and relatively permanent storage. Memory as Reconstruction Schemas • Memories are not recorded and played back like videos or movies. • They are reconstructed from our experiences. • Schemas are the mental representations that we form of the world by organizing bits of information into knowledge. • We shape memories according to the personal and individual ways in which we view the world. • Schemas influence the ways we perceive things and the ways our memories store what we perceive. • We tend to remember things in accordance with our beliefs and needs. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Capacity of Memory • Psychologists have not yet discovered a limit to how much can be stored in a person’s long-term memory. • We do not store all of our experiences permanently. • Our memory is limited by the amount of attention we pay to things. • The memories we store in long-term memory are the incidents and experiences that have the greatest impact on us. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Forgetting • Forgetting can occur at any one of the three stages of memory. • Information encoded in sensory memory decays almost immediately unless it is transferred into short-term memory. • Short-term memory will disappear after only 10 to 12 seconds unless it is transferred into long-term memory. • Information stored in short-term memory is lost when it is displaced by new information. • The most familiar and significant cases of forgetting involve the inability to use information in long-term memory. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Basic Memory Tasks Recognition • Recognition is one of the three basic memory tasks and involves identifying objects or events that have been encountered before. • It is the easiest of the memory tasks. Recall • Recall is the second memory task and involves bringing something back to mind. • In recall, you do not immediately recognize something you have come across before. • You have to “search” for it and possibly reconstruct it in your mind. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Relearning • The third basic memory task is relearning. • Relearning involves learning something a second time, usually in less time than it was originally learned. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Click on the image to play the Interactive. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Different Kinds of Forgetting • Much forgetting is due to interference or decay. • Interference occurs when new information takes the place of what has been placed in memory. • Decay is the fading away of a memory over time. • Both are part of normal forgetting. • There are more extreme kinds of forgetting. Repression Amnesia • Freud says we sometimes forget things on purpose without knowing it because some memories are painful and unpleasant. • Amnesia is severe memory loss, which is often caused by trauma to the brain. • He called this kind of forgetting repression. • People with retrograde amnesia forget the period leading up to a traumatic event. • Memory loss of events after trauma is called anterograde amnesia. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Infantile Amnesia • Retrograde amnesia and anterograde amnesia are extreme and rare. • One type of amnesia that everyone experiences is infantile amnesia, which is the forgetting of events before the age of three. • Infantile amnesia is based on biological and cognitive factors. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor. Learning Improving Memory Drill and Practice • Drill and practice, or repetition, is one way to remember information. • It is an effective way to transfer information from sensory memory to short-term memory and from short-term memory to long-term memory. Form Unusual Associations • Memory can be enhanced by forming unusual associations. Relate to Existing Knowledge • Elaborative rehearsal—relating new information to what you already know—is another way to improve memory. Use Mnemonic Devices • Mnemonic devices combine chunks of information into a catchy or easily recognizable format. Original Content Copyright by HOLT McDougal. Additions and changes to the original content are the responsibility of the instructor.