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Human Memory
Three Memory Processes

1.
2.
3.
Memory = the storage and
retrieval of what one has either
learned or experienced
Encoding
Storage
Retrieval
Encoding
 Transformation of
information so the
nervous system can
process it
 Types of codes:
1. Acoustic
2. Visual
3. Semantic
Storage

The process by
which we
remember
material
acquired over a
period of time
Retrieval
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The process of
obtaining
information from
storage
Memory
championships- A
Russian known only
by his first initials—
S.S.—could repeat
70 randomly
selected numbers in
the precise order in
which he had just
heard them
What is Memory Retrieval?
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The process of
accessing stored
information and
making it available to
our consciousness
Some memories are
retrieved easily
Context-dependent
memory effect : Police
detectives often take
victims back to the
scene of a crime to
help jog their
memories
Memory Stages
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Sensory
memory
Short-term
memory
Long-term
memory
Sensory Memory
Sensory Memory (cont.)
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The storage system that holds
memory of sensory impressions
is short-lived
Sensory register
Iconic memory, eidetic imagery,
echoic memory
Short-Term Memory (STM)
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Allows for the
brief retention of
newly acquired
information,
usually for a
maximum of 30
seconds
George Miller’s Study
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Magic 7
Examples of magic 7
Shakespeare’s seven ages of
man (from As You Like It), the
seven wonders of the world, the
seven deadly sins, and even
Snow White’s pals the seven
dwarfs
Chunking

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The process of breaking down a
large amount of information into
smaller chunks
Chunking makes recall easier
A Simple Test
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Row 1
Row 2
Row 3
Row 4
Row 5
Row 6
Row 7
2937
78541
821374
3820961
18294624
9284619384
1992199319941995
Maintenance Rehearsal

A system for
remembering
which involves
repeating
information to
oneself without
looking for any
underlying
meaning
The Primacy-Recency Effect
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Cheese
Milk
Eggs
Shampoo
Bread
Catsup
Jam
Flour
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We can best
remember or
recall
information at
the beginning
and the end of a
list
Long-Term Memory

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The storage of
information over
an extended
time
Information in
long-term
memory is
organized by
categories or
features
Types of Long-Term Memory
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Semantic
memory
Episodic
memory
Declarative
memory
Procedural
memory
Semantic Memory
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Knowledge of
language,
including its
rules, words,
and meanings
Retaining facts
Semantic
memory is not
imprinted on our
brains
Episodic Memory

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Memories of
one’s own life
(also includes
the time
experiences
occurred)
Like a personal
diary
Declarative Memory
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Holds knowledge that can be
called forth consciously as
needed
“What” and “that”
For example,we remember
“what” street we live on, and we
know “that” two plus two equals
four.
Procedural Memory

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Memory of learned
skills that do not
require conscious
recollection
We gradually lose
the ability to
describe what we
are doing when we
perform these
skills
Retrospective vs.
Prospective Memory
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Retrospective memory: past
experience or events and
previously acquired information
Prospective memory: things you
need to do in the future
Muscle Memory
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Relying on
muscles to
perform
complex motor
skills such as
riding a bike,
dancing, typing,
hitting a
baseball
Flashbulb Memories
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What were you
doing when…?
Usually involves
stressful or
emotionally
arousing
personal or
historical events
the 9/11 attack
Flashbulb Memories (cont.)
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Anderson &
Conway (1997)
coined the term
“flashbulb
memory”
Permanently
seared into the
brain
Eyewitness Testimony
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Memory does
not always work
like a camera
that records and
retrieves
snapshots of
events
Eyewitness
testimony can
be flawed
Misinformation
effect
Schemas
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Conceptual
frameworks that a
person uses to make
sense of the world
Sets of expectations
A portrait of Frank
J. Huttle, a WWII Air
Corps pilot. His
bravery and
sacrifice represent
elements of popular
schemas many of
us have about
pilots
Schema Violation
Memory and the Brain
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How and where
are memories
stored in the
brain?
The striatum
(deep in the
frontal cortex)
The
hippocampus
and the
amygdala
The Biological Basis for
Memory
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The human brain has
billions of neurons
and trillions of
synapses
How to track down
specific networks of
cells where
memories are stored
Aplysia- large sea
snail that possesses
only 20,000 neurons
Erik Kandel
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A molecular biologist/Nobel Prize
winner
Experiments with sea snails
Neurotransmitter released into
synapse
Kandel observed that the amount
of neurotransmitters released
into the synapses between the
nerve cells that controlled the
withdrawal reflex increased as
the snails learned the
conditioned response. He thus
proved that memory formation
involves biochemical changes
that occur at the synaptic level
Retrieval and Recognition Exercise
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Look at the picture
and name this
dwarf from Walt
Disney’s “Snow
White and the
Seven Dwarfs”
Write down or
make a list of as
many of the seven
dwarfs that you
can remember
Seven Dwarfs
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The following list includes the
names of all seven dwarfs. Which
ones are correct?
Tubby, Grouchy, Gabby, Fearful,
Sleepy, Smiley, Jumpy, Hopeful,
Shy, Droopy, Dopey, Sniffy,
Wishful, Puffy, Dumpy, Sneezy,
Lazy, Pop, Grumpy, Bashful,
Cheerful, Shorty, Nifty, Happy,
Doc, Wheezy
Forgetting
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Decay
Memory loss
Interference
Amnesia
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Often caused by
a traumatic
injury to the
brain, such as a
concussion
Retrograde
amnesia
Anterograde
amnesia
Retrograde Amnesia
Childhood Amnesia
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A normal phase
of development
that accounts
for the lack of
memory before
the ages of 3 or
4
Dissociative
amnesia- often
results from
stress.