Download Schema

Schema Theory of
Learning
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Outline
Overview of Schema Theory
Properties of Schemas
Functions of Schemas
Application of Schemas to Instruction
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Memory
Memories tend to include much inaccurate
information


Inaccuracies in memory are systematic and
predictable
Memories depend on prior experience
Illustration: Memory for people in attendance at
lecture
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Freeman, Romney, & Freeman (1987)
Memory for classroom attendance

Who was at last week’s lecture?
Error rate 50%

People actually in class but forgotten
In-group: 4.7 people
Out-group: 8.1 people


More organized schema for in-group resulted in more accurate
recall
People not in lecture but recalled as present
In-group: 2.8 people
Out-group: 0.4 people

More typical schema for in-group resulted in more false
attendances
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Memory
Recall depends on:

Quality of schema organization
Better quality, better memory

How typical the event
More typical, more errors
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Pompi & Lachman (1967)
Chief Resident Jones adjusted his face mask while
anxiously surveying a pale figure secured to the
long gleaming table before him. One swift stroke of
his small sharp instrument and a thin red line
appeared. Then an eager young assistant carefully
extended the opening as another aid pushed aside
glistening surface fat so that vital parts were laid
bare. Everyone present stared in horror at the ugly
growth too large for removal. He now knew it was
pointless to continue.
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Pompi & Lachman (1967)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
Doctor
Nurse
Blood
Scalpel
Operation
Blue
Piano
Beautiful
Thin
Pushed
Secured
Surface
Surveying
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
No
No
No
No
No
Red
Instrument
Ugly
Fat
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schema
Schema: Structure for representing concepts in
memory


Schemata: Plural
Schema: Singular
Schema Theory: Theory of how knowledge is
represented and how the representation of
knowledge guides the application of knowledge
Incoming information from the environment is
organized around previously developed schema
Gist: Central idea
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schema
Schemas are like:



Dramas: Schemas provide the script where
the variables (aka characters, setting, and
action) are unique to each performance
Theories: Interpret phenomenon and make
predictions about unobserved events
Procedures/Algorithms: Evaluate new
information to determine the fit to the schema
and then directs future behavior
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Properties of Schemas
Schemas are developed by prior knowledge and
experience
Actively build schemas and revise in light of new
information
Information from the environment is processed and
transformed depending on prior schemas
Schemas help people understand, interpret, and
remember incoming information
Facilitates memory because it is easier to remember
schema than details
Culture influences schemas

Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the cultural
context in which it takes place
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Bransford & Johnson (1972)
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Bransford & Johnson (1972)
If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry
since everything would be too far away from the correct
floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from
carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated.
Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of
electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also
cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the
human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An
additional problem is that a string could break on the
instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the
message. It is clear that the best situation would involve
less distance. Then there would be fewer potential
problems. With face to face contact, the least number of
things could go wrong
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
About the James headache woman her
asked.
James asked the woman about her
headache.
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schemas and
Information Processing
Perception: Attaching meaning to a stimulus


Bottom-Up : Notice separate defining features and
assemble them into a recognizable pattern
Top-down: Perceive based on the context and the
patterns you expect to occur in the situation
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schemas and
Information Processing
Schema Theory proposes an interaction
between bottom-up and top-down processing

Incoming information activates a schema
Bottom-up
Facilitates activation and modification of old schema or
generation of new schema

Once appropriate schema is activated, schema fills in
necessary but not explicit details with assumed
values
Top-down
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schema and
Information Processing
Concept: General category whose
members share certain properties.
Prototype: Best representative of a
concept.


Prototypes result from experiences with many
exemplars of the concept
Incoming information is compared to the
prototypical schema
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schemas and
Information Processing
If incoming information matches the script,
schema is strengthened
If incoming information does not match the
script, search for more accurate schema
Information that does not fit into any
schema likely to:


Not be comprehended or
Comprehended incorrectly
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schemas and
Information Processing
Information Processing: Incoming
information matches outgoing information

Memory matches the environment
Schema Theory: Active attempt to
understand information based on prior
knowledge and experiences

Memories are shaped by prior knowledge and
experiences
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Functions of Schema
Organize knowledge
Assist recall
Guide behavior
Enable predictions
Make sense of current experiences
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Learning New Knowledge
Three reactions to new information:


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Accretion: Incorporate new information to
existing schemata without making changes to
the schemata
Tuning: Modify schemata to be more
consistent with experience
Restructuring: Create a new schemata
because of inconsistency between old
schemata and new information
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Benefits of Schema
Benefits of connecting new information to
prior knowledge:


Better retention of information
Better ability to access information in
authentic situations
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
You have been employed by a manufacturer of educational
materials to ensure that the cards in one of their
educational games have been correctly produced. The rule
governing the production of the card states that if the card
has the letter S on one side, then it has the number 3 on
the other.
Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the
other. Indicate which cards you definitely need to turn over,
and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is
broken in the case of any of these four cards.
S
Q
3
7
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
You are the Housemaster at a boarding school. It is your
responsibility to ensure that the students keep their rooms
tidy, so you introduce a rule which states that if a student
eats biscuits then their room must be tidy.
Each card represents one student. One side states whether
or not the student’s room is tidy. The other side details
whether they have been eating cookies. Indicate the cards
you definitely need to turn over, and only those cards, to
determine whether the rule is broken from any of the four
students.
Ate
cookies
No
cookies
Messy
room
Tidy
room
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Expert and Novice Schema
Watson Selection Task (Watson, 1966)

Cheater Detection Task: Second
contextualized item
Learning is easier in context
Expertise in a domain influences
performance
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Expert and Novice Schema
Experts: Complete and comprehensive
schemata



Recognize a pattern related to a developed
schema
Enable to reason using specific, domainbased strategies
Use automatized skills
Novice: Incomplete schemata
Use general problem solving strategies
Greater load on working memory
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Goal of Education
Students construct and apply appropriate
schemata to solve practical problems in
various domains

Become “expert” problem solvers in school
courses
Instructional Strategies


Reduce extra cognitive load – Irrelevant tasks
Increase relevant cognitive load
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Identifying Students’ Schemas
Observe
Ask for explanation
Ask to make predictions
Ask to teach another student
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Teaching Strategies
Connect new information to prior knowledge


Advanced Organizer: Bridge between new
information and prior knowledge
Schema Signals: Indicate the schema that students
should use to approach the new information
Make instructional materials meaningful


Concept Maps: Diagram showing the relationship
between concepts
Identify and correct schemas that are contradictory,
wrong, or unnecessary
Directly teach transfer
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Developing an Advanced Organizer
List major principles of new lesson
List knowledge or skills necessary for
understanding new material
Assess students’ understanding of prerequisite
material
Re-teach knowledge and skills if necessary
Write the advanced organizer that illuminates
the similarities between old and new concepts
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Using Advanced Organizers
Present Advanced Organizer
Present content

Use examples beginning from simple to
complex
Relate content back to the Advanced
Organizer
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Advanced Organizers
Checklist for good Advanced Organizers:



Does the organizer allow students to discover
the logical relationships in the lesson?
Does the organizer relate unfamiliar material
to existing knowledge?
Is the organizer easy for the learner to use?
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Advanced Organizers
Cognitive theories focus on cognitive processes.
Before Spring Break, we discussed reasoning. Today we
are going to discuss teaching methods.
When discussing the Deviation IQ in the chapter on
intelligence, I introduced you to a standard deviation.
Standard deviations represent the variance of a variable.
When one has calculated the variance of multiple
variables, then factor analysis can be used to determine
the communality of each variable.
Bruner’s teaching method consisted of having students
generalize a rule from examples. Ausubel, on the other
hand, viewed effective learning as typically taking place
when teachers present the general rule first, and then
examples later.
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schemata
Behaviorism
Classical
Conditioning:
Operant
Conditioning:
Involuntary behavior
Voluntary behavior
Unconditioned
Stimulus
Unconditioned
Response
Conditioned
Stimulus
Reinforcement:
Behavior is repeated
Punishment:
Behavior stops
Conditioned
Response
Negative
Reinforcement
Positive
Reinforcement
Positive
Punishment
Present
Remove
Negative
Punishment
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Developing Concept Maps
Place the main idea in a circle in the center
List all concepts to include in the concept map
Group the concepts by higher-order topics
Place the higher-order topics in circles linked to
the main idea
Link the concepts around the higher-order topic
Verify the connections on the concept map and
change if necessary
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Concept Maps
Benefits of Concept Maps


Hierarchical structure helps organize major
concepts
Cross-links between concepts helps to see
how different concepts are related
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Classroom Implications
Prior knowledge influences what and how a student
learns
What is remembered is largely a function of what was
understood to begin with
Students learn best when they link new information with
related existing ideas

Information is forgotten unless integrated into existing schemata
The schemas of students are different from each other
and from the teacher
Both understanding and memory are driven by meaning
Learning should occur in the context in which it will be
used
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schema Theory Overview
Results: Organized representation of
knowledge in memory
Means: Comparison of new information to
previously developed schemas



Accretion
Tuning
Restructuring
Inputs: Information that fits into previously
developed schemas
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Schema Theory Overview
Learning Outcomes: Schema, Organized body of
knowledge used to interpret new information
Role of the Learner: Apply previously existing schema
to new problems and modify schemas as appropriate
Role of the Instructor: Identify students’ previously
developed schema


Integrate new information with previously developed schemas
Correct inaccurate schemas
Inputs for Learning: Link between new information and
previous schemas
Process of Learning: Accretion, tuning, and
restructuring of schema
Dr. K. A. Korb
University of Jos
Revision
What are schemas and how do they
influence perception?
How does top-down and bottom-up
perception influence the application and
development of schemas?
What are the three ways that schemas are
developed?
How does schema theory influence
education?