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Three Stages of Memory
Stage Model of Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
Three Stages of Memory
• Three memory stages that differ in…
– Capacity – How much info can be stored
– Duration – How long the info can be stored
– Function – what is done with the stored info capacity and duration.
• Information is transferred from one stage to another
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
Sensory Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
• Function—holds
information long enough
to be processed for basic
physical characteristics
• Capacity—large
– can hold many items at once
• Duration—very brief
retention of images
– .3 sec for visual info
– 2 sec for auditory info
Sensory Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
• Sensory memory forms
automatically, without
attention or interpretation
• Attention is needed to
transfer information to
working memory
Neisser's Selective Attention Test:
Introduction
• At any particular moment, we focus our
attention on just a few limited aspects of our
experience.
• Ulric Neisser devised a test to demonstrate
selective attention. A viewer sees images of
three men in black shirts tossing a ball
superimposed on images of three men in
white shirts tossing a ball, and is instructed to
press a key each time a black-shirted player
passes the ball.
Neisser's Selective Attention Test
To take this test (only a portion of the complete film is shown here),
make a tick mark on a piece of paper each time a black-shirted player
passes the ball. Click below to view the film
Neisser's Selective Attention Test:
Questions
1.
Did you notice a woman with an umbrella
walk across the court?
2. How is selective attention useful to us?
What are some of its drawbacks?
3. Selective attention applies not just to vision
but to the other senses too. Give some
examples.
Sensory Memory
• Divided into two types:
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
– iconic memory–visual
information
– echoic memory–
auditory information
Types of Sensory Memory
• Visual sensory memory—brief memory of
an image or icon. Also called iconic
memory
– George Sperling studied iconic memory
• Auditory sensory memory—brief memory
of a sound or echo. Also called echoic
memory
• Auditory sensory memories may last a bit
longer than visual sensory memories
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Iconic Memory
Experiment
Sperling’s Experiment
• Presented matrix of letters for
1/20 of a second
• Report as many letters as
possible
• Subjects recall only half of the
letters
• Was this because subjects
didn’t have enough time to
view entire matrix? No
• How did Sperling know this?
Sperling’s Experiment
• Sperling showed people can
see and recall ALL the letters
momentarily
• Sounded low, medium or high
tone immediately after matrix
disappeared
– tone signaled 1 row to report
– recall was almost perfect
 Memory for image fades after
1-3 seconds or so, making report
of entire display hard to do
High
Medium
Low
Short Term or Working Memory
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention Working or
Short-term
Memory
Working Memory Store
• Function - conscious processing of information
– where information is actively worked on
• Capacity - limited (holds 7 +/- 2 items)
• Duration - brief storage (about 30 seconds)
• Code - often based on sound or speech even with visual inputs
Sensory
Input
Attention
Sensory
Memory
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Working Memory Store
• What happens if you need to keep information in
working memory longer than 30 seconds?
• To demonstrate, memorize the following phone
number (presented one digit at a time)...
8 5 7 91 6 3
Working Memory Store
• What is the number?
857-9163
The number lasted in your working memory
longer than 30 seconds
So, how were you able to remember the
number?
Maintenance Rehearsal
• Mental or verbal repetition of information
Allows information to remain in working
memory longer than the usual 30 seconds
Maintenance rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Working or
Short-term
Memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
• What happens if you can’t use maintenance
rehearsal?
• Memory decays quickly
• To demonstrate, again memorize a phone number
(presented one digit at a time)
– BUT, have to count backwards from 1,000 by sevens
(i.e., 1014, 1007, 1000 … etc.)
6 2 8 50 9 4
Working Memory Store
• What is the number?
628-5094
Without rehearsal, memory fades
Peterson’s STM Task
• Test of memory for 3letter nonsense syllables
• Participants count
backwards for a few
seconds, then recall
• Without rehearsal,
memory fades
Working Memory Model
• Baddeley (1992)
• 3 interacting components
Visuospatial
Sketch Pad
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
Working Memory Model
• Visuospatial sketch pad - holds visual and spatial info
• Phonological loop - holds verbal information
• Central executive - coordinates all activities of working
memory; brings new information into working memory
from sensory and long-term memory
Visuospatial
Sketch pad
Central
Executive
Phonological
Loop
Ways to Improve STM:
Chunking
• Grouping small bits of information into
larger units of information
– expands working memory load
• Which is easier to remember?
–4 8 3 7 9 2 5 1 6
– 483 792 516
Sloth Meets Chunk
Long Term Memory
LTM
Long-Term Memory
• Once information passes from sensory to
working memory, it can be encoded into
long-term memory
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
Long-Term Memory
• Function—organizes and stores information
– more passive form of storage than working memory
• Unlimited capacity
• Duration—thought by some to be permanent
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
Long-Term Memory
• Encoding—process that controls movement from
working (STM) memory to long-term memory
storage (getting info in)
• Retrieval—process that controls flow of information
from long-term to working memory store (getting
info out)
Maintenance Rehearsal
Sensory
Input
Encoding
Sensory
Memory
Attention
Long-term
Working or
memory
Short-term
Memory Retrieval
Encoding:
Automatic and
Effortful Processing
Automatic vs. Effortful Processing
• Some information,
such as where you
ate dinner
yesterday, you
process
automatically.
• Other information,
such as this
chapter's
concepts, requires
effort to encode
and remember.
Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
• Automatic processing
– Unconscious encoding of information
– Examples:
• What did you eat for lunch today?
• Was the last time you studied during the day or night?
• You know the meanings of these very words you are
reading. Are you actively trying to process the definition of
the words?
Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
• Effortful processing
– Requires attention and conscious effort
– Examples:
• Memorizing your notes for your upcoming
Introduction to Psychology exams
• Repeating a phone number in your head until
you can write it down
Types of Effortful Processing
• Maintenance Rehearsal – go over something
repeatedly till it is encoded in LTM
• Elaborative Rehearsal – relate the info to info you
already know.
– Self-reference effect – applies info to yourself.
– Visual imagery – vivid images you can remember.
– Levels of Processing framework – info encoded at a
deeper level will be more easily remember than info
encoded at a shallow level. How can you do this?
(See middle of page 246).
Fergus Craik and Robert
Lockhart's levels of processing
framework
• Information that is processed at a “deep”
level is more likely to be encoded into longterm memory than information processed at
a “shallow” level.
• When studying for classes, actively
question new information, think about its
implications, and try to generate your own
examples based on your experiences
Hippocampus
Cerebellum
Types of LTM
Explicit
W/ conscious recall
General Knowledge
(semantic memory)
Personal Events
(episodic memory)
Implicit
No conscious recall
Skills and
Procedures
(procedural
memory)
Conditioning
(CC & OC)
Dimensions of LTM
• Explicit memory—memory with awareness;
information can be consciously recollected;
also called declarative memory
• Implicit memory—memory without
awareness; memory that affects behavior
but cannot consciously be recalled; also
called nondeclarative memory
Two Types of Explicit Memory
1. Episodic information—information about events
or “episodes”
2. Semantic information—information about facts,
general knowledge, school work
Episodic Memory
• Memory tied to your own personal experiences
• Examples:
– What month is your birthday?
– Do you like to eat caramel apples?
• Q: Why are these explicit memories?
• A: Because you can actively declare your
answers to these questions
Semantic Memory
• Memory not tied to personal events
• General facts and definitions about
the world
• Examples:
– How many tires on a car?
– What is a cloud?
– What color is a banana?
Semantic Memory
• Q: Why are these explicit memories?
• A: Because you can actively declare your
answers
• Important note: Though you may have
personal experience with these items,
your ability to answer does NOT depend
on tying the item to your past
– i.e., Do not have to recall the time last week when
you ate a banana to say that bananas are yellow
Clive Wearing--Living Without
Memory: Introduction
• Studies of malfunctions of memory have helped
researchers understand how we form (encode), store, and
retrieve memories. Memories are recorded successively as
sensory memory (the immediate initial stage), short-term
memory (or working memory), and long-term memory.
• In one extreme type of memory deficit, caused by accident
or disease, a person is unable to form new memories and
lives in an eternal present.
• Clive Wearing, a world-renowned choir director and
musical arranger, suffered brain damage following viral
encephalitis, which destroyed both temporal lobes, the
entire hippocampus, and much of the left frontal lobe. He
lost his ability to form new memories. He has no memory
of anything beyond the last minute or two.
Clive Wearing--Living Without
Memory
Clive and Deborah Wearing have one of their regular encounters, thirteen
years after Clive suffered brain damage. Deborah describes Clive's
repeated experience of waking up for the first time, as recorded in a diary.
Click on
box or
title to
play.
If you’d like
to view a
more recent
video of
Clive click
HERE.
(5:54)
(12:35) Segment #10 from The Mind: Psychology Teaching Modules (2nd edition).
Clive Wearing--Living Without
Memory: Questions
1.
Why does Wearing retains many memoryrelated abilities, such as speech, musical
ability, and ability to recognize his wife.
2. What is the role of the hippocampus (totally
destroyed in Wearing) in memory
formation?
Implicit Memory
• Nondeclarative memory
• Influences your thoughts or behavior,
but does not enter consciousness
• Three subtypes
Subtypes of Implicit Memory
Implicit Memory
Classical
Conditioning
Procedural
Memory
Priming
Classical Conditioning
• Studied earlier
• Implicit because
it is
automatically
retrieved
Procedural Memory
• Memory that enables you to perform specific learned
skills or habitual responses
• Examples:
– Riding a bike
– How to speak grammatically
– Tying your shoe laces
• Why are these procedural memories implicit?
– Can’t readily describe their contents
• try describing how to tie your shoes
– They are automatically retrieved when appropriate
Priming
• Priming is influence of one memory on
another
• priming is implicit because it does not
depend on awareness and is automatic
• Here is a demonstration
Priming Demonstration
• Unscramble the
following words:
•
•
•
•
•
•
ORES
LT E PA
KTALS
TSME
LOBSOMS
ELAF
•
•
•
•
•
ROSE
PETAL
STALK
STEM
BLOSSOM
Priming Demonstration
• ELAF = LEAF
• Why not respond
FLEA?
• Because flower parts
were primed
(flower power)
Perceptual Priming
• Can you identify the
fragmented stimulus to
the right?
Two Types of Priming
Priming
Conceptual Perceptual
Conceptual Priming
• The semantic meaning of priming stimulus
influences your encoding or retrieval
• Thought to involve activation of concepts stored
in semantic memory
• Example: Flower power priming demonstration
• Does not depend on sense modality (works across
the senses): pictures can conceptually prime
sounds AS THE NEXT SLIDE SHOWS
Priming across modalities
• Look at the picture .
Then when the
instructor says a word,
write it down.
Perceptual Priming
• Prime enhances ability to identify a test stimulus
based on its physical features
• Does not work across sense modalities
Perceptual Priming
• Can you identify the
fragmented stimulus to
the right?
Perceptual Priming
• What if you were
shown the following
slide earlier in the
lecture?
Perceptual Priming
• Can you identify the
fragmented stimulus to
the right?
How are memories organized?
• Clustering - hierarchical organization
• Semantic Network Model - associations
Clustering: Hierarchical Organization
• Related items clustered together to form
categories
• Related categories clustered to form higherorder categories
• Remember list items better if list presented in
categories
– poorer recall if presented randomly
• Even if list items are random, people still
organize info in some logical pattern
Hierarchical Organization
Mammals
Dogs
German
Shepherds
Cats
Scottish
Terriers
Siamese
Calico
Semantic Network Model
• Mental links between concepts
– common properties provide basis for mental link
• Shorter path between two concepts =
stronger association in memory
• Activating one concept can spread and
activate other associations.
Semantic Network Model
See example at Human Cloud Brain
Car
Truck
Bus
Fire
Engine
House
Fire
Ambulance
Red
Hot
Stove
Rose
Apple
Cherry
Pot
Pan
Violet
Flower
Pear
Pie
How is Memory like a Computer?
Summary
• Modal model of memory
– three memory stores (sensory, working and
long-term memory)
– control processes (attention, maintenance
rehearsal, encoding and retrieval) govern
movement of information within and between
stores