Download Memory

Memory
Objectives
• To give the concept of memory
• To discuss the process of memory
• To understand different problems with the
memory
• To learn about memory strategies to
improve memory
Lecture Outline
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Concept of Memory
Three-Stage Model of Memory
Forgetting and Memory
Problems with Memory
Memory Improvement
Memory
• Memory is the ability to code, store and
retrieve information
– Procedural: how to ride a bike
– Factual: definition of “learning”
• Memory involves coding the input of the
senses (visual, auditory)
Importance of Memory
• Memory is the most extraordinary
phenomenon
• Nearly all higher mental functions (speech,
thinking, perceptions, moods, judgments)
are based on phenomenon of memory
• Stores events as video recordings along
with associated feelings and emotions
• Pleasant and unpleasant memories
Three Stages of Memory
• Human memory resembles a computer
• It has three stages:
• Encoding: Sensory information is received and
coded or transferred into neural impulses which
can be processed further or stored for later use.
• Storage: the encoded information is stored in
memory system. Some information is stored
briefly and then discarded e.g. telephone
number, others used frequently is stored on
permanent basis
• Retrieval: when we recall or bring a
memory in consciousness, we have
retrieved it. This process is called Memory
Retrieval.
Three Types of Memory
• Sensory Memory is a brief
representation of a stimulus while being
processed in the sensory system
• Storage of sensory events such as sights,
sounds and tastes
• Short-Term Memory (STM) is working
memory
– Selective Attention: determine what
information to send to short-term memories
– Brief memory, temporary storehouse
– Information is stored as images, sounds
– Limited capacity (7 items)
– Duration is about 30 seconds
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Long-Term Memory
Permanent storehouse
LTM is large capacity and long duration
Information transferred from STM to LTM
is coded into categories and stored in
terms of meaning and importance
Overview of Memory Model
Varieties of LTM
• Psychologists distinguish between two
types of LTM
– Semantic memory refers to factual
information, general and specific information
(What is the capital of Pakistan?)
– Episodic memory refers to memory of
personal events as to where and when an
event happened
• “I remember visiting the……………”
• “My first day at college”
Overview of LTM
Organization of LTM
• Items in LTM are organized in
categories that form a hierarchy with
multiple paths (direct and indirect) to
each item
– Sometimes the cues required to recall an
item are not sufficient
– Tip-of the tongue phenomenon: person
can’t easily recall the item, but shows
some recall for its characteristics (“…it
begins with the letter ….”)
Rehearsal
• This process consists of keeping items of
information in the centre of attention by
repeating them
• If someone having good memory it is due to his
ability and experience in rehearsing
• Not only amount of rehearsal is important but
also the ways in which information is rehearsed
• Elaborative rehearsal: giving meaning,
organization to the material being rehearsed
Memory Measures
• Recognition is when a specific cue (face
or name) is matched against LTM
• Recall is when a general cue is used to
search memory
• e.g. define the term “personality”
• Relearning refers to a situation in which
a person learns material a second time.
Memory is evident in savings of time to
relearn the second time versus the first
Flashbulb Memories
• Where were you when you first heard:
– That Benazir Bhutto had been killed?
Forgetting
• Forgetting is the inability to recall previously
learned information
• Forgetting refers to memory failure
• Forgetting rate is steep just after learning
and then becomes a gradual loss of recall
Theories of Forgetting
• Interference theory argues that learning new
things interferes with what we learned earlier
• Proactive interference: old information
interferes with recall of new information
• Retroactive interference: new information
interferes with recall of old information
• Decay theory: memory trace fades with time
• Motivated forgetting: involves the loss of
painful, unpleasant memories (protective
memory loss)
• Repression
• Retrieval failure: the information is still
within LTM, but cannot be recalled
because the retrieval cue is absent
Interference and Memory
Amnesia
• Amnesia is forgetting produced by brain
injury or by trauma
– Retrograde amnesia refers to problems
with recall of information prior to a trauma
– Anterograde amnesia refers to problems
with recall of information after a trauma
Retrograde amnesia
Anterograde amnesia
Point of Trauma
Pathological Changes in Memory
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MMSE
Amnestic disorders
Dementias
Alzheimer’s diseases
Anatomy of Memory
• Two key parts of limbic system are
essential in receiving new information and
storing it:
• Hippocampus
• Amygdala
Anatomy of Memory
Bilateral damage to
the hippocampus
results in anterograde
amnesia
Memory Strategies
• Feedback of Knowledge: feedback allows you
to check effectiveness of learning
• Attention
• Recitation and Rehearsal: repetition of what
you have learnt
• Organization and Categorizationchunks
• North, man, blue, summer, girl, green,
west, yellow, boy, east, woman
• Chunking helps long term memory
• Linking information meaningfully
• Organizing ideas into hierarchies
• Selection: careful and selective marking
in your text book
• Attach emotions, feelings: we hardly
forget what is emotionally significant
• Distributed practice refers to spacing
learning periods in contrast to massed
practice in which learning is “crammed”
into a single session
• Distributed practice leads to better
retention
• Sleep: sleep after the study is helpful and
reduces the interference
• Overlearning: memory is greatly
improved when study is continued beyond
bare mastery.
• Review
• Manage your time
What do we remember?
• Flanagan (1997) argues that we
remember:
• 20% of what we read
• 30% of what we hear
• 40% of what we see
• 50% of what we say
• 60% of what we do
• And
• 90% of what we read, hear, see, say and
do.