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Chapter 5: Studying Cultures
Studying Culltures
Nineteenth Century
Early Twentieth Century: Development
Evolution Reborn (ca. 1940–1970)
Anthropology Today: Divisions
The Fieldwork Experience
Nineteenth Century: Origins
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Anthropology originated because of contact
between Western nations and peoples of other
lands.
Charles Darwin’s The Origin of Species (1859) had
a huge impact on scientific approaches to human
culture, including anthropology.
Unlineal Evolutionism
Unilineal Evolutionism was a 19th c. theory that held that
all cultures pass through a similar sequence of stages in
their development. It included:
1.
2.
The premise that cultural evolution proceeded from
“simple” cultures to “complex” cultures.
The cultural classification of cultures into stages of
development (e.g. “savagery,” “barbarism,”
“civilization”); proponents believed this was an
objective system, but we must ask by which
standard of judgment.
Unlineal Evolutionism
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Unilineal Evolutionism was a flawed theory, but it
did establish the comparative method, a key
methodology in Anthropology.
Unilineal Evolutionism led to the establishment of
Anthropology as a separate academic field.
Historical Particularism or American Historical
Particularism (ca. 1900-1940)
Historical Particularism (Historicism or American
Historical particularism) was an early twentieth-century
approach that challenged evolutionism by
emphasizing that each culture is a unique result of its
distinctive past, which makes cross-cultural
generalizations questionable.
Historical Particularism
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Each culture is unique and must be studied on its
own terms.
Each culture changes along its own path, depending
on the influences that affect it.
Historical Particularism
Made important contributions to the field of
Anthropology including:
(1) Challenging the overly speculative schemes of the
unilineal evolutionists.
(2) Insisting on firsthand fieldwork for reliable data.
(3) Developing cultural relativism as essential.
(4) Demonstrating that cultural differences and
biological differences have little to do with one
another.
Functionalism
Functionalism analyzes cultural elements in terms of
their useful effects to individuals or to the persistence
of the whole society.
British Functionalism
(ca.1920-1950)
The cultural features of a people should be explained
by the functions they perform.
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Contributions:
 Importance of fieldwork.
 Relativism and Holistic perspectives.
Evolution Reborn (ca. 1940-1970)
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Return to cultural evolution.
White emphasized importance of technology.
Steward emphasized the adaptation to the local
environment in making cultures the way they are.
Anthropology Today: Divisions
Anthropology Today: Divisions
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Materialism (or Cultural Materialism) holds that the
main influence on human ways of life is how people
produce and distribute resources from their
environment; takes a scientific perspective.
Modern materialists are likely to view technology,
environment, and culture as having feedback
relationships to one another.
Anthropology Today: Divisions
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Postmodernism argues that the methods and ideas
of science are culture bound (e.g. Biological emphasis on
competition as “natural” vs. based on biologists’ own
upbringing in capitalist cultures).
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Emphasizes how knowledge is produced and how
this is related to social power; takes a humanistic
approach.
Challenges the scientific view by questioning
whether anthropologists can be objective because
they have culture too, affecting their perceptions.
Whose Ethnocentrism?
Broadly, anthropologists follow either a “materialist”
or “humanistic” approach, but this is an overly simple
dichotomy.
Often, an anthropologist’s theoretical orientation will
depend on her or his interests (e.g. environment,
economic systems, long term evolutionary changes or
art, mythology, or oral traditions).
The Fieldwork Experience
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Surveys - used to gather specific information from a lot
of individuals.
Interview - fieldworker elicits responses to
prearranged questions.
Participant observation - fieldworkers participate in
the daily lives of the people they are studying.
(working with) Key Informants (or key consultants) who are community members with focal expertise and
with whom anthropologists spend extended amounts of
time.
Limitations of Surveys and Interviews
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People's descriptions of their values and beliefs are
often incomplete.
There are discrepancies between statements and
behavior.
The Fieldwork Experience
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Developing Rapport or acceptance by the
community, is important so that a working
relationship is possible.
Culture Shock, a feeling of uncertainty and anxiety
that an individual experiences when placed in a
strange cultural setting, can occur.
Recent Issues: Objectivity
Is objectivity possible?
There are a range of challenges to objectivity in
anthropological analysis, particularly by humanists
(and postmodernists) who see each fieldwork
experience as “situated.”
 Materialists agree that objectivity is difficult but
maintain that reports of similarities, over time,
demonstrate core similarities.

Recent Issues: Ethics
Ethical dilemmas for fieldworkers often arise from
differences in one’s access to wealth and power.
For these and other reasons, guidelines were created
by the AAA and include:
(1) Not undertaking or continuing research that will be
harmful to the host community.
(2) Respecting the wishes of individuals regarding
their public identification.
Ethical Conduct (continued)
(3) Fieldworkers must obtain the informed consent of
people before undertaking work.
(4) Not exploiting individuals or groups for personal
gain.
(5) Preserving the integrity of scholarly research and
publication.
Recent Issues: Globalization and Fieldwork
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Globalization of academic disciplines has increased
scholarly exchanges.
Ability of anthropological “subjects” to now study
themselves or “us.”
Questions of representation about who is best
qualified to describe the culture of a people.
“Native” anthropologists and “non-native”
anthropologists.
Increased access to the internet allows for more
ethnographic voices/postings of material.