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Cells • I can distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells. • I can differentiate between plant and animal cells. • I can identify the different organelles associated with major cell processes. Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cells Cell Membrane • Outer boundary of cell • Protects the cell • Controls what enters and leaves the cell • HOMEOSTASIS Cell Wall - PLANTS • Only found in plant cells • Adds protection and support • Made of cellulose. • Allows water and dissolved substances to pass through. ANIMAL PLANT The Nucleus • Controls most activities in the cell • Contains all genetic information in the form of DNA. Cytoplasm • Clear fluid within cell that contains all organelles • Moves materials throughout the cell Endoplasmic Reticulum • Series of folded membranes that form sacs or tubes • Rough ER has ribosomes attached Ribosomes • Transports materials between the cytoplasm and nucleus • Makes proteins in the cell • May be free in cytoplasm or attached to ER • Proteins are vital to lifeall cells must produce them Golgi Bodies • Saclike membranes used for storing/ packaging of chemicals • Cells that make saliva or mucus have many Golgi bodies • UPS – Sorts, packages, and delivers Mitochondria • Energy producers • Powerhouse of the cell • Sausage-shaped • Many mitochondria in muscle cells Chloroplast – PLANTS only Vacuoles • Store food, water, or waste materials • Plant cells have large vacuoles Lysosomes • Found in Golgi bodies • Contain digestive enzymes to digest unwanted particles • Help white blood cells to destroy bacteria Cell Transport • I can compare and contrast passive transport and active transport. • I can predict the movement of water and other molecules across selectively permeable membranes. (hypertonic, isotonic, and hypotonic) Cell Transport Active or Passive Transport? • Which requires ATP energy? • Which goes with the concentration gradient? • Which goes against the gradient? Osmosis • Movement of water • Across a semipermeable membrane • Special case of diffusion Passive Transport • Diffusion or Osmosis • Going with the gradient • No ATP energy required High Conc. To *** * * * * *** * * * * * * Low Conc. * * * * High to Low Concentration Active Transport • Against the gradient • Requires ATP • Low to High Concentrations • Salt returning to blood in kidneys ****** * * * ****** * * * ****** * * * * * * * * * Hypotonic or Hypertonic Solutions? Tap Water Salt water inside cell • Hypotonic = “under” or low salt outside, relative to cell • Hypertonic = “over” or high salt relative to cell Sea water organism in fresh water………………. Tap Water Salt Water •Inside Cell •Low Water H20 • Hypotonic Solution = • Low salt concentration outside the cell • High Water concentration outside • Water moves? • Inside • Cell will swell up like a HIPPO - Cell Bursts! Fresh water organism in salt water…………. • Hypertonic Solution • Water moves? • Out of the cell • Cell shrinks Salt Water •High salt •Low water Fresh water •Inside cell= •High Water H20 Isotonic • SAME concentration – Water will move in and out at SAME rate Cheek cells with dye Checkpoint • • • • • • • • 1. What does the mitochondria do? Cellular Respiration 2. What is the function of the ribosomes? Synthesize Proteins 3. What is the function of the cell membrane? Control what goes in and out of cell 4. What does the Golgi do? UPS of cell, sorts, packages, and delivers • 5. If a cell is placed in a Hypotonic solution, which direction does the water move? • Into cell, swell up like a HIPPO • 6. If a cell is placed in a Hypertonic solution, what happens to the cell? • Shrinks, water moves out • 7. There are two types of transport, active and passive. Which of the following is not an example of passive transport? Osmosis, Diffusion, Endocytosis, or facilitated diffusion • Endocytosis is Active Transport • 8. In muscle cells, calcium ions are pumped through channels into the ER. These ions move from low to high concentration. This is an example of which of the following: Osmosis, Diffusion, Active Transport, or Exocytosis. • Active Transport • 9. Protein synthesis takes place on the _______________. • Ribosomes • 10. The golgi does which of the following: makes proteins, disassembles proteins, packages and redistributes proteins, or gives the codes for making proteins. • Packages and redistributes Macromolecules • I can distinguish among proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, and nucleic acids. • I can identify positive tests for carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins. • Refer to Macromolecule CHART Objectives: • I can identify how enzymes control chemical reactions in the body. • I can explain what happens during cell cycle. • I can compare and contrast mitosis and meiosis. ENZYME • Biological Catalyst • Catalyst = speeds up the rate of chemical reaction by LOWERING activation energy. • Substrate or Reactants bind to active site. • Makes reactions happen FASTER Active Site A restricted region of an enzyme molecule which binds to the substrate. So How Do Enzymes Work? Enzymes work by weakening bonds which lowers activation energy Activation Energy = minimum amount of energy needed for reactants (substrate) to form Products (new substance) 35 Enzymes Lowers Activation Energy Without Enzyme With Enzyme Free Energy Activation Energy Reactants Products Progress of the reaction Notice Name of Enzyme Notice Name of Substrate Name of Enzyme ends with “ASE” and is named according to its job. See if you can identify Enzyme, Chemical Reaction, Reactants (Substrate), Products, active site, and induced fit. Reactants (Substrate) Induced Fit Products Active Site Enzyme Chemical Reaction Enzyme Notice Reactants (Substrate bind to enzyme where chemical reaction occurs faster because the activation energy is lowered (less energy needed than without enzyme). The enzyme is ready to act again and does NOT become part of the Products. When temperature increases the reaction also increases as the molecules have more kinetic energy But this only occurs up to the optimum temperature (usually about 98.6 o For 37o C) The temperature at which the rate of reaction is fastest is known as the optimum temperature After the optimum temperature, the heat causes the enzyme to denature. The enzyme changes shape and the active site no longer matches the shape of the substrate molecule The activity and shape of enzymes is also affected by pH • Enzymes prefer to work at an optimum pH. Outside of its pH range the enzyme is denatured. What pH does amylase work best in? What about pepsin? Optimum pH pepsin amylase Rate Of Reaction 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 pH 9 10 11 12 Mitosis and Meiosis • Identify the relationship between cell growth and cell reproduction. • Describe how meiosis is involved in the production of egg and sperm cells. • Describe how meiosis and sexual reproduction contribute to genetic variation in a population. Cell Cycle • G1 = cell grows • S = DNA replication • G2= Prepare to divide • M= Mitosis INTERPHASE Stages of Mitosis – 2 Diploid IDENTICAL Daughter Cells • • • • Prophase – Chromosomes APPEAR (condense) Metaphase – Chromosomes line up in MIDDLE Anaphase – Chromosomes move AWAY to opposite poles Telophase – TWO nuclear envelopes • Cytokinesis – Cells divides into two daughter cells • Cell Plate forms in PLANTS • Cleavage furrow in ANIMALS Sex Cells (Gametes) from Meiosis 1N (four genetically different) DNA Replicates + 46 46 46 46 EGG 46 Meiosis--Sex Cell Formation 4 Haploid Cells Genetically DIFFERENT • In meiosis, there are 2 divisions of the nucleus: meiosis I & meiosis II • Prophase I: double stranded chromosomes and spindle fibers appear; nuclear membrane and nucleolus fade • 3. Metaphase I: chromosome pairs (chromatids) line up – spindle fibers form and attach to centromeres and centrioles • 4. Anaphase I: chromotids move AWAY from matching pair • Telophase I: cytoplasm divides and 2 cells form • 6. Prophase II: chromatids and spindle fibers reappear • Metaphase II: chromatids line up in the center of the cell – spindle fibers attach to centromere & centriole • Anaphase II: centromere divides – chromosomes split and move to opposite poles • . Telophase II: spindle fibers disappear – nuclear membrane forms around chromosomes at each end of cell – each nucleus has half the # of chromosomes as the original (haploid) – now there are 4 sex cells (daughter cells) Meiosis I Meiosis II No DNA replication Mitosis Meiosis 2N 1N 2 Identical Diploid Daughter Cells 4 Genetically Different Haploid Cell (Crossing Over) PMAT PMAT x 2 Begins with 2N Asexual Begins with 2N Sexual Meiosis • Egg and sperm cells only carry one set of 23 • Each human haploid cell is “N” • Egg and sperm combine (fertilization) to form 2N or 46 • All other chromosomes are called autosomes • Each human or animal cell has sex chromosomes XX or XY Photosynthesis/Cellular Respiration • I can compare and contrast photosynthesis and cellular respiration in terms of energy transformation. • I can differentiate between light dependent and light-independent reactions. • I can recognize and understand the process of aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Photosynthesis (overview) “Dark” Reaction Carbon fixation Fermentation What happens when oxygen is not available? Glycolysis goes a different pathway. Fermentation releases energy from food molecules without oxygen. During fermentation, cells convert NADH to NAD+ by passing high energy electrons back to pyruvic acid. This allows glycolysis to produce a steady stream of ATP. Fermentation – ANAEROBIC Lactic Acid Fermentation – reason your muscles get sore from build-up of lactic acid. Pyruvic acid + NADH →lactic acid + NAD+ Alcoholic fermentation has a formula of Pyruvic acid + NADH → alcohol + CO₂ + NAD+ Compare photosynthesis and cellular respiration Photosynthesis Cellular Respiration Function Energy storage Energy release Location Chloroplast Mitochondria Reactants CO₂ and H₂O and light C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂ Products C₆H₁₂O₆ and O₂ CO₂ and H₂O Equation 6CO₂+ 6H₂O →C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6O₂ 6O₂ + C₆H₁₂O₆ →CO₂ + H₂O Genetics • I can predict the outcome of a cross between parents of known genotype. • I can determine the probability of a particular trait in an offspring based on the genotype of the parents and the particular mode of inheritance. Phenotype & Genotype • Phenotype - the way an organism looks - Physical • red hair or brown hair • genotype - the gene combination of an organism • AA or Aa or aa Word Wall True-breeding Homozygous Phenotype Physical Trait Tall Heterozygous Gamete Tt Sex Cells – Egg and Sperm Hybrid Genotype The actual genetic make-up TT:Tt:tt Allele Form of gene (T or t) Gene 2 Alleles (one from each parent that code for trait) Big Eyes are dominant = BB or Bb Small eyes = bb Punnett square example Alleles for male Alleles for Female Both parents are heterozygous Yy x Yy Possible Genotypes of Offspring 1 YY:2 Yy: 1 yy Phenotype – 3:1 Cross a homozygous Round with wrinkled R In a Punnett square, the Alleles always move to squares as shown. RR or Rr= round rr = wrinkled R r Rr Rr r Rr Rr The actual alleles Physical description of trait Genotype = Phenotype = Probability = 4 Rr (heterozygous) 4 round 100% round Parents are RR which is same (homozygous) alleles for dominant and rr which are same for recessive trait RR or Rr= round rr = wrinkled Cross a hybrid with a hybrid R In a Punnett square, the Alleles always move to squares as shown. r R RR Rr r Rr rr The actual alleles Physical description of trait Genotype = Phenotype = Probability = Parents are Rr which is heterozygous CLASSIC – Mendel Hybrid Cross Dominant – 75% Recessive – 25% *Determine recessive trait by small number showing the trait 1 RR:2Rr:1rr 3 Round, 1 wrinkled 75% round, 25% wrinkled Independent Assortment • Alleles separate independently during the formation of gametes. The dihybrid cross EeTt x EeTt Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Mendel’s Peas Dihybrid Cross Cross: TtYy x TtYy TY Ty tY ty TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Tall, yellow TTYy TTyy TtYy Ttyy Tall, yellow Tall, green Tall, yellow Tall, green TtYY TtYy ttYY ttYy Tall, yellow Tall, yellow TtYy Ttyy Tall, yellow Tall, green TY Notice Phenotype Ratio 9:3:3:1 Ty tY Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow ttYy ttyy ty Genotypes: Phenotypes: 1 TTYY : 2 TTYy Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green : 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy 9 tall plants with yellow seeds : 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 ttYy : 1 ttyy 3 tall plants with green seeds 3 dwarf plants with yellow seeds 1 dwarf plant with green seeds Incomplete Dominance Japanese four-o-clock flowers • Red flower plant genotype = RR • White flower plant genotype = WW • Pink flower plant genotype = RW Appear blended. Incomplete, not Full Strength. Cross a Red flower with a White Flower R In a Punnett square, the Alleles always move to squares as shown. R RR = Red WW = white RW = Pink W RW RW W RW RW The actual alleles Physical description of trait Genotype = Phenotype = Probability = 4 RW 4 Pink 100% Pink Parents are RR for red and WW for white. Both are homozygous or true breeding. Co Dominance NOTE: Alleles can be represented different ways. RR for Red, WW for White,RW for Roan or RR for Red, R’R’ for white, and RR’ for Roan. Let’s look at a Punnett Square with both examples. FULL Strength RR x WW = RW or RR X R’R’ = RR’ Roan Cow Cross a Roan cow with white cow. Co-Dominance R In a Punnett square, the Alleles always move to squares as shown. W RR = Red cow WW = white cow RW = Roan Cow W RW WW W RW WW The actual alleles Physical description of trait Genotype = Phenotype = Probability = 2 RW, 2 WW 2 Roan, 2 White 50% Roan, 50% White Parents are RW for Roan which is heterozygous WW which is homozygous for White Cross a Roan cow with white cow. Co-Dominance R In a Punnett square, the Alleles always move to squares as shown. R’ RR = Red cow R’R’ = white cow RR’ = Roan Cow R’ RR’ R’R’ R’ RR’ R’R’ The actual alleles Physical description of trait Genotype = Phenotype = Probability = 2 RR’, 2 R’R’ 2 Roan, 2 White 50% Roan, 50% White Parents are RW for Roan which is heterozygous WW which is homozygous for White Multiple Alleles • When more than two alleles (form of gene) contribute to the phenotype. • Human blood types are an example • There are three possible alleles: A,B, and O • Both A and B are dominant over O. • O is recessive • AB is an example of Co-Dominance 6 different genotypes, 3 different Alleles • • • • • • I AI A I Ai I AI B I BI B Ibi ii Type A - 2 possible genotypes Type AB Type B – 2 possible genotypes Type O Cross a heterozygous type A with homozygous type B Punnett square the Alleles always move to squares as shown. A I i B I A B II B Ii B I A B II B Ii The actual alleles Physical description of trait Genotype = Phenotype = Probability = A = I AI A , I Ai B= IBIB, IBi AB =IAIB O = ii IAIB, IBi 2 AB, 2 B 50% AB, 50% B Polygenic traits • Traits controlled by two or more genes. • Lots of variation in trait. • Examples: –Human height, eye and skin color Figure 11.17 Skin Color Autosomal and Sex-Linked Traits • Autosomal - Traits controlled by genes on chromosomes 1 -22. • Sex-Linked – Traits controlled by the X chromosome or the Y chromosome. • Most often sex-linked traits are on the X chromosome. • Let’s look at some of examples and work together. Cross a heterozygous female with a colorblind male n X Y Female = XX Male = XY Normal = N, color-blind = n N X N n X X N X Y Xn n n XX n XY The actual alleles Physical description of trait Genotype = Phenotype = Probability = Work like any other Punnett Square. Remember no letter on the Y. The trait is connected to the X! XNXn,XnXn,XNY,XnY 2 Females, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind 2 Males, 1 Normal, 1 Color-blind 50% Colorblind Test Your Knowledge of Punnett Square • http://www.biology.clc.uc.edu/courses/bio10 5/geneprob.htm Punnett Squares Monohybrid & Dihybrid Crosses Copyright © The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cross: TtYy x TtYy TY Ty tY ty TTYY TTYy TtYY TtYy Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Tall, yellow Tall, yellow TTYy TTyy TtYy Ttyy Tall, yellow Tall, green Tall, yellow Tall, green TtYY TtYy ttYY ttYy Tall, yellow Tall, yellow TtYy Ttyy Tall, yellow Tall, green TY Ty tY Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, yellow ttYy ttyy ty Genotypes: Phenotypes: 1 TTYY : 2 TTYy Dwarf, yellow Dwarf, green : 4 TyYy : 2 TtYY : 1 TTyy 9 tall plants with yellow seeds : 2 Ttyy : 1 ttYY : 2 ttYy : 1 ttyy 3 tall plants with green seeds 3 dwarf plants with yellow seeds 1 dwarf plant with green seeds Punnett Squares • • • • • • • Practice crossing different genotypes. Notice patterns True breeding and true breeding TT x tt All Tt 4:0 - phenotype Hybrid x Hybrid = Tt x Tt 3:1 – phenotype Scientific Inquiry • I can read graphs and charts • I can determine appropriate tools and recognize that the electron microscope is used to examine details. What MUST occur during cell cycle to ensure proper division of chromosomes? DNA must replicate Type of consumer a mushroom is. decomposer and heterotroph Centrioles are found in (plant or animal cells) and are used for cell division animal cells Two molecules that store energy for longer than an hour. Carbohydrate and lipid What type of transport is exocytosis and what does it do? active transport and it moves ions from inside to OUTSIDE Powerhouse of the cell and location of aerobic respiration mitochondria Amino acids are building blocks of what macromolecule proteins Prokaryotic cells lack these nucleus and organelles In muscle cells, calcium ions are pumped through channels from LOW to HIGH concentration using what? active transport Protein synthesis occurs on these. ribosomes What the Golgi apparatus does. package and redistribute proteins? Benedicts solution turns orangebrown in presence of what macromolecule? carbohydrate or glucose or sugar A cell placed in salt water will gain or lose water causing it to swell or shrink? lose water and shrink because it is in a Hypertonic solution? Hypo = Hippo – swells, move in Iso = equal = moves in and out at same rate Cell structure found only in plants and location of photosynthesis chloroplast Role of enyzme in chemical reaction. lower activation energy thus increasing rate of chemical reactions Name three types of passive transport. Diffusion (high to low concentration), osmosis (diffusion of water, and facilitated diffusion (using protein channel or carrier. Proper order of mitosis. Pro, Meta, Ana, Telophase Forms between plant and animal cells between telophase and cytokinesis. cell plate for plants and cleavage furrow for animals Step that follows Krebs cycle in aerobic respiration? ETC or Electron Transport Chain the ETC produces the MOST ATP inside of mitochondria where aerobic respiration takes place. Type of respiration when oxygen is absent or LOW What is anaerobic respiration? Form of chemical energy used in cellular respiration glucose Cell that undergoes meiosis and starts with 46 chromosomes will end with 4 cells with _______. While cell that undergoes mitosis with 46 chromosomes will end up with 2 cells with _______ 23 or half for meiosis and 46 which is identical for mitosis Energy transfer molecule of cell. ATP Pathways for anaerobic respiration. • Glycolysis, Lactic Acid fermentation, Alcoholic fermentation Stage of mitosis where chromatin condenses into chromosomes, therefore becoming visible. Prophase Macromolecule that has Nitrogen as well as Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen protein Heterozygous Genotype • Tt • Heterozygous means DIFFERENT • Homozygous – TT or tt means same alleles for genotype Chemical equation for Photosynthesis • 6 CO2 + 6 H2O with sunlight yields C6H12O6 + 6O2