Download Chapter 3: Child Development

Child Development
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Heredity
Developmental Psychology: The study of
progressive changes in behavior and abilities
Heredity (Nature): Transmission of physical
and psychological characteristics from
parents to their children through genes
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic acid): Molecular
structure, shaped like a double helix that
contains coded genetic information
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Genes
Genes: Specific areas on a strand of
DNA that carry hereditary information
Dominant: The gene’s feature will appear
each time the gene is present
 Recessive: The gene’s feature will appear
only if it is paired with another recessive
gene
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© Biophoto Associates/Science-Source/Photo Researchers
Fig. 3.1 This image, made with a scanning electron microscope, shows several pairs of human
chromosomes. (Colors are artificial.)
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Fig. 3.2 (Top left) Linked molecules (organic bases) make up the “rungs” on DNA’s twisted “molecular
ladder.” The order of these molecules serves as a code for genetic information. The code provides a
genetic blueprint that is unique for each individual (except identical twins). The drawing shows only a small
section of a DNA strand. An entire strand of DNA is composed of billions of smaller molecules. (Bottom left)
The nucleus of each cell in the body contains chromosomes made up of tightly wound coils of DNA. (Don’t
be misled by the drawing: Chromosomes are microscopic in size and the chemical molecules that make up
DNA are even smaller.)
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Fig. 3.3 Gene patterns for children of brown-eyed parents, where each parent has one brown-eye gene
and one blue-eye gene. Since the brown-eye gene is dominant, 1 child in 4 will be blue-eyed. Thus, there is
a significant chance that two brown-eyed parents will have a blue-eyed child.
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Temperament and Environment
Temperament: The physical “core” of
personality; includes sensitivity, irritability,
distractibility, and typical mood
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Easy Children: 40 %; relaxed and agreeable
Difficult Children: 10 %; moody, intense, easily
angered
Slow-to-Warm-Up Children: 15 %; restrained,
unexpressive, shy
Remaining Children: Do not fit into any specific
category
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Environment
Environment (“Nurture”): All external conditions that
affect a person and perhaps his/her development
Sensitive Periods: A period of increased sensitivity to
environmental influences; also, a time when certain
events must occur for normal development to take
place
Congenital Problem: A problem or defect that occurs
during prenatal development; “birth defect”
Genetic Disorder: Problem caused by inherited
characteristics from parents; e.g., cystic fibrosis
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Teratogens
Anything capable of causing birth
defects (e.g., narcotics, radiation,
cigarette smoke, lead, and cocaine)

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Caused by
repeated heavy alcohol consumption
during pregnancy. Infants:
Have low birth weight, a small head, body
defects, and facial malformations
 Lack Cupid’s Bow, the bow-shaped portion of
the upper lip (look in the mirror to see)

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How to Minimize Prenatal Risks
Maintain good nutrition during pregnancy
Learn relaxation and stress reduction
techniques to ease transition to motherhood
Avoid teratogens and other harmful
substances
Get adequate exercise during pregnancy
Obtain general education about pregnancy
and childbirth
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Childbirth
Medicated Birth: Traditional; mother is
assisted by physician and given drugs
for pain
Prepared Childbirth: Parents learn
specific behavioral techniques to
manage pain and facilitate labor.
Lamaze method is most famous
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Deprivation and Enrichment
Deprivation: Lack of normal stimulation,
nutrition, comfort, or love
Enrichment: When an environment is
deliberately made more complex and
intellectually stimulating and emotionally
supportive
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CNN - Miscarriage Depression
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The Mozart Effect: Real or
Nonsense?
Rauscher & Shaw (1998) claimed that after college
students listened to Mozart they scored higher on a
spatial reasoning test
Original experiment done with adults; tells us nothing
about infants
What effect would listening to other styles of music
have?
Most researchers unable to duplicate the effect
Conclusion: Those who listened to Mozart were just
more alert or in a better mood
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Newborns (Neonates) and Their
Reflexes
Grasping Reflex: If an object is placed in the infant’s
palm, she’ll grasp it automatically (all reflexes are
automatic responses; i.e., they come from nature, not
nurture)
Rooting Reflex: Lightly touch the infant’s cheek and
he’ll turn toward the object and attempt to nurse; helps
infant find nipple or food
Sucking Reflex: Touch an object or nipple to the infant’s
mouth and she’ll make rhythmic sucking movements
Moro Reflex: If a baby’s position is abruptly changed or
if he is startled by a loud noise, he will make a hugging
motion
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Fig. 3.5 Infant imitation. In the top row of photos, Andrew Meltzoff makes facial gestures at an infant. The
bottom row records the infant’s responses. Videotapes of Meltzoff and of tested infants helped ensure
objectivity. (Photos courtesy of Andrew N. Meltzoff.)
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Fig. 3.7 Motor development. Most infants follow an orderly pattern of motor development. Although the
order in which children progress is similar, there are large individual differences in the ages at which each
ability appears. The ages listed are averages for American children. It is not unusual for many of the skills
to appear 1 or 2 months earlier than average or several months later (Frankenberg & Dodds, 1967; Harris &
Liebert, 1991). Parents should not be alarmed if a child’s behavior differs some from the average.
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Maturation
Definition: Physical growth and development
of the body, brain, and nervous system
Increased muscular control occurs in
patterns; order of maturation is almost
universal
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Cephalocaudal: From head to toe
Proximodistal: From center of the body to the
extremities
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© Michael Newman/PhotoEdit
Fig. 3.8 Psychologist Carolyn Rovee-Collier has shown that babies as young as 3 months old can learn to
control their movements. In her experiments, babies lie on their backs under a colorful crib mobile. A ribbon
is tied around the baby’s ankle and connected to the mobile. Whenever babies spontaneously kick their legs,
the mobile jiggles and rattles. Within a few minutes, infants learn to kick faster. Their reward for kicking is a
chance to see the mobile move (Hayne & Rovee-Collier, 1995).
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Emotional and Social
Development
Basic Emotions: Anger, fear, joy; appear to
be unlearned
Social Smile: Smiling elicited by social stimuli;
not exclusive to seeing parents
Self-Awareness: Awareness of oneself as a
person; can be tested by having infants look
in a mirror and see if they recognize
themselves
Social Referencing: Observing other people
to get information or guidance
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Fig. 3.9 The traditional view of infancy holds that emotions are rapidly differentiated from an initial capacity
for excitement. (After K.M.B. Bridges, 1932. From “Emotional Development in Early Infancy.” Reprinted by
permission of the Society for Research in Child Development.)
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Fig. 3.10 Infants display many of the
same emotional expressions as adults
do. Carroll Izard believes such
expressions show that distinct
emotions appear within the first
months of life. Other theorists argue
that specific emotions come into focus
more gradually, as an infant’s nervous
system matures. Either way, parents
can expect to see a full range of basic
emotions by the end of a baby’s first
year. Over the first 2 years, children
become increasingly active in
initiating emotional exchanges with
parents (Grolnick, Cosgrove, &
Bridges, 1996).
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Imprinting (Lorenz)
Definition: Rapid, relatively permanent type of
learning that occurs during a limited time
period early in life
Lorenz (an ethologist) studied natural
behavior patterns of animals
Hatched baby geese in an incubator; when
geese were born, first moving object they saw
was Lorenz
They followed him around and acted as
though he were their mother!
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Mary Ainsworth and Attachment
Separation Anxiety: Crying and signs of fear when a
child is left alone or is with a stranger; generally
appears around 8-12 months
Quality of Attachment (Ainsworth)
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Secure: Stable and positive emotional bond
Insecure-Avoidant: Anxious emotional bond; tendency to
avoid reunion with parent or caregiver
Insecure-Ambivalent: Anxious emotional bond; desire to be
with parent or caregiver and some resistance to being
reunited with Mom
Contact Comfort (Harlow): Pleasant and reassuring
feeling babies get from touching something warm and
soft, especially their mother
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Fig. 3.11 In the United States, about two thirds of all children from middle-class families are securely
attached. About 1 child in 3 is insecurely attached. (Percentages are approximate. From Kaplan, 1998.)
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Fig. 3.12 An infant monkey clings to a
cloth-covered surrogate mother. Baby
monkeys becomes attached to the cloth
“contact-comfort” mother but not to a
similar wire mother. This is true even
when the wire mother provides food.
Contact comfort may also underlie the
tendency of children to become attached
to inanimate objects, such as blankets or
stuffed toys. However, a study of 2- to 3year-old “blanket-attached” children found
that they were no more insecure than
others (Passman, 1987). (So, maybe
Linus is okay after all.)
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Play and Social Skills
Solitary Play: When a child plays alone
even when with other children
Cooperative Play: When two or more
children must coordinate their actions
Affectional Needs: Needs for love and
affection
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Optimal Caregiving
Proactive Maternal Influences: A
mother’s warm, educational interactions
with her child
Goodness of Fit (Chess & Thomas):
Degree to which parents and child have
compatible temperaments
Paternal Influences: Sum of all effects a
father has on his child
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Parenting Styles (Baumrind, 1991)
Authoritarian Parents: Enforce rigid rules and
demand strict obedience to authority. Children tend
to be self-absorbed as adults and have higher rates
of drug abuse and violence
Overly Permissive: Give little guidance. Allow too
much freedom, or don’t hold children accountable for
their actions. Children tend to be dependent and
immature and frequently misbehave
Authoritative: Provide firm and consistent guidance
combined with love and affection. Children tend to
be competent, self-controlled, independent, and
assertive
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CNN – Brain Conference
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Types of Child Discipline
Power Assertion: Using physical
punishment or a show of force, e.g.,
removing toys or privileges
Withdrawal of Love: Withholding
affection
Management Techniques: Combine
praise, recognition, approval, rules, and
reasoning
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Spanking
Gershoff (2002): Parents should
minimize or avoid entirely
No long-term damage if backed up by
supportive parenting
Frequent spanking leads to increased
aggression and to an increase in
behavioral problems
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Language Acquisition
Cooing: Repetition of vowel sounds by
infants; typically starts at 6-8 weeks
Babbling: Repetition of meaningless
language sounds (e.g., babababa); uses
consonants B, D, M, and G; starts at 7
months
Single-Word Stage: The child says one word
at a time
Telegraphic Speech: Two word sentences
that communicate a single idea (e.g., Want
cookie)
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Fig. 3.14 Mother-infant and father-infant interactions. These graphs show what occurred on routine days in
a sample of 72 American homes. The graph on the left records the total amount of contact parents had with
their babies, including such a actions as taking to, touching, hugging, or smiling a the infant. The graph on
the right shows the amount of care-giving (diapering, washing, feeding, and so forth)done by each parent.
Note that in both cases mother-infant interactions greatly exceed father-infant interactions.
(Adapted from Belsky et al., 1984)
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Noam Chomsky and the Roots of
Language
Biological Disposition: Presumed readiness of
ALL humans to learn certain skills such as
how to use language
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Chomsky: Language patterns are inborn
Parentese (Motherese): Pattern of speech
used when talking to infants
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Marked by raised voice; short, simple sentences
and repetition
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Jean Piaget and Cognitive
Development
Piaget believed that all children passed through a set
series of stages during their cognitive development;
like Freud, he was a Stage Theorist
Transformations: Mentally changing the shape or form
of a substance; children younger than 6 or 7 cannot do
this
Assimilation: Application of existing mental patterns to
new situations
Accommodation: Existing ideas are changed to
accommodate new information or experiences
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Jean Piaget and the First Stage
of Cognitive Development
Sensorimotor (0-2 Years): All sensory
input and motor responses are
coordinated; most intellectual
development here is nonverbal
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Object Permanence: Concept that objects
still exist when they are out of sight
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Jean Piaget and the Second
Stage of Cognitive Development
Preoperational Stage (2-7 Years):
Children begin to use language and
think symbolically, BUT their thinking is
still intuitive and egocentric
Intuitive: Makes little use of reasoning and
logic
 Egocentric: Child is unable to
accommodate viewpoints of others
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Jean Piaget and the Third Stage
of Cognitive Development
Concrete Operational Stage (7-11Years):
Children become able to use concepts of
time, space, volume, and number BUT in
ways that remain simplified and concrete, not
abstract
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Conservation: Mass, weight, and volume remain
unchanged when the shape of objects changes
Reversibility of Thought: Relationships
involving equality or identity can be reversed
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Fig. 3.17 Children under age 7 intuitively assume that a volume of liquid increases when it is poured from a
short, wide container into a taller, thinner one. This boy thinks the tall container holds more than the short
one. Actually each holds the same amount of liquid. Children make such judgments based on the height of
the liquid, not its volume.
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Jean Piaget and the Last Stage
of Cognitive Development
Formal Operations Stage (11 Years and
Up): Thinking now includes abstract,
theoretical, and hypothetical ideas
Abstract Ideas: Concepts and examples
removed from specific examples and
concrete situations
 Hypothetical Possibilities: Suppositions,
guesses, or projections
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Lev Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory
Children’s cognitive development is heavily influenced by
social and cultural factors
Children’s thinking develops through dialogues with more
capable people
Zone of Proximal Development: Range of tasks a child
cannot master alone even though they are close to having
the necessary mental skills; they need guidance in order
to complete the task
Scaffolding: Framework or temporary support. Adults
help children learn how to think by scaffolding, or
supporting, their attempts to solve a problem or to
discover principles
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Scaffolding must be responsive to a child’s needs
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Effective Parenting
Have stable rules of conduct (consistency)
Show mutual respect, love, encouragement,
and shared enjoyment
Have effective communication
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I-Message: Tells children the effect their behavior
had on you (Use this)
You-Message: Threats, name-calling, accusing,
bossing, criticizing, or lecturing (Avoid this)
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Consequences
Natural Consequences: Effects that
naturally follow a particular behavior;
intrinsic effects
Logical Consequences: Rational and
reasonable effects
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How Has New Knowledge About
Genetics Affected Parenthood?
Artificial Insemination: Medically engineered
conception.
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Sperm cells from an anonymous donor are used to
impregnate a woman
Test-Tube Babies: Occurs through in vitro fertilization
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Fertilization of an ovum outside a woman’s body
Used for infertile couples
Child will share both mother’s and father’s genes
Human Genome Project: A map of the entire set of
human genes
Genetic Counseling: Examines family history of each
future parent and thus calculates risk of a genetic
disorder
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Fig.3.20 During in vitro fertilization, ova from the woman or a donor are mixed with sperm from the man or donor. In
the advanced techniques shown here, a sperm cell is placed inside an ovum. If both the egg and sperm are donated,
both nominal parents are genetically unrelated to the “test-tube” baby.
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How Has New Knowledge About
Genetics Affected Parenthood? (cont.)
Amniocentesis: Sample of amniotic fluid is
taken from mother’s womb; can identify fetal
sex and detect some genetic defects
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Usually done at 15th week of pregnancy
Can detect Down’s Syndrome
Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS): Performed
between 6th and 8th week of pregnancy
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Small piece of placenta is taken for analysis
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The Future
Eugenics: Selective breeding for
desirable characteristics
Cloning: Production of an entire
organism from a single cell
Not likely to happen for many years
 The Rael’s were a hoax
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