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The Raw Materials
of Biotechnology
Chapter 2
Learning Outcomes
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Identify the levels of biological organization and explain their relationships
Describe cell structure and its significance in biotechnology research and
product development
Discuss the types of organisms researched and the types of cells grown and
studied in biotechnology facilities plus the products with which they are
associated
Distinguish between the cellular organization of prokaryotic and eukaryotic
cells
List the four main classes of macromolecules and describe their structure
and function
Define genetic engineering and identify products created with this
technology
Explain the Central Dogma of Biology and its importance in genetic
engineering
2.1 Organisms and Their Components
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To manufacture biotechnology products, biotechnicians
must work with organisms and their components.
These are the “raw materials” of biotechnology.
Levels of Biological
Organization
The Living Condition
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Living things include:
• Plants
• Animals
• Bacteria
• Fungi
• Protozoans
Characteristics of life:
• Growth
• Reproduction
• Response to stimuli
• Breakdown of food molecules
• Production of waste products
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Cells of multicellular
organisms are usually
grouped into functional units:
• Tissues
• Organs
Cells are the smallest units of
life. Some cells contain even
smaller, nonliving units.
Vocabulary
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Fluorometer – an instrument that measures the amount or type of light emitted
Organism – a living thing
Cell – the smallest unit of life that makes up all living organisms
Escerichia coli - a bacterium that is commonly used by biotechnology companies for the
development of products
Multicellular – composed of more than one cell
Cytology – cell biology
Anatomy – the structure and organization of living things
Physiology – the processes and functions of living things
Respiration – the breaking down of food molecules with the result of generating energy
for the cell
Unicellular – composed of one cell
Tissue – a group of cells that function together (eg, muscle tissue or nervous tissue)
Organ – tissues that act together to form a specific function in an organism (eg, stomach
that breaks down food)
Vocabulary
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Proteins – one of the four classes of macromolecules; folded, functional polypeptides that
conduct various functions within and around a cell (eg, adding structural support, catalyzing
reactions, transporting molecules)
Eukaryotic/eukaryote – a cell that contains membrane-bound organelles
Protist – an organism belonging to the Kingdom Protista, which includes protozoans, slime
molds, and certain algae
Organelles – specialized microscopic factories, each with specific jobs in a cell
Mitochondria – membrane-bound organelles that are responsible for generating cellular energy
Sugar – a simple carbohydrate molecule composed of hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen
Starch – a polysaccharide that is composed of many glucose molecules
Nucleic acid – a class of macromolecules that directs the synthesis of all other cellular
molecules; often referred to as “information-carrying molecules”
Lipids – one of the four classes of macromolecules; includes fats, waxes, steroids, and oils
Pancreas – an organ that secretes digestive fluids as well as insulin
Hormone – a molecule that acts to regulate cellular functions
2.1 Review Questions
1.
Give an example of a plant that has been produced by biotechnology.
2.
Knowledge of what other disciplines of science will improve the
understanding of biotechnology?
3.
Describe two characteristics of living things.
4.
Which of the following is considered to be “alive”: organs, molecules,
atoms, cells, or organisms?
2.2 Cellular Organization and Process
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Cells produce different molecules.
Hundreds of different molecules can be produced.
The Structure of Cells
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Cell walls
Cellulose fibers
Plasma membrane
Nucleus
Plant cell. Most plant cells contain
chloroplasts and a rigid cell wall.
Animal cells do not possess cell
walls.
Animal cell. Animal cells do not have a cell
wall and, thus, do not have a rigid cell
boundary. The shapes of animal cells are
quite diverse due to the flexibility of the
outer membrane and the response when cells
touch each other.
The Central Dogma of Biology. The Central Dogma of Biology states that DNA codes for RNA and that
RNA codes for proteins (DNA -> mRNA -> proteins). Once scientists had described the Central Dogma,
they could propose and test strategies for manipulating protein production by manipulating DNA and RNA
codes. Moving genes into cells to produce new proteins is the basic principle in genetic engineering.
Shown in cell culture, these CHO cells are a
common mammalian cell line used to
manufacture recombinant protein.
Each rod-shaped structure in this electron
micrograph is an E. coli cell. E. coli cells are
simple prokaryotes with no membranebound organelles, such as mitochondria or
chloroplasts.
Types of Cells Used in Biotechnology
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Plant cells
Animal cells
Bacteria cells
Fungal cells
Vocabulary
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Chlorophyll – the green-pigmented molecules found in plants; used for photosynthesis
(production of chemical energy from light energy)
Photosynthesis – a process by which plants or algae use light energy to make chemical
energy
Chloroplast – the specialized organelle in plants responsible for photosynthesis
(production of chemical energy from light energy)
Cytoplasm – a gel-like liquid of thousands of molecules suspended in water, outside the
nucleus
Lysosome – a membrane-bound organelle that is responsible for the breakdown of
cellular waste
Ribosome – the organelle in a cell where proteins are made
Cell wall – a specialized organelle surrounding the cells of plants, bacteria, and some
fungi; gives support around the outer boundary of the cell
Cellulose – a structural polysaccharide that is found in plant cell walls
Plasma membrane – a specialized organelle of the cell that regulates the movement of
materials into and out of the cell
Glucose – a 6-carbon sugar that is produced during photosynthesis reactions; usual form
of carbohydrate used by animals, including humans
Vocabulary
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Adenosine triphosphate – a nucleotide that serves as an energy storage molecule
Nucleus – a membrane-bound organelle that encloses the cell’s DNA
Chromosomes – the long strands of DNA intertwined with protein molecules
Enzyme – a protein that functions to speed up chemical reactions
Pigments – the molecules that are colored due to the reflection of specific
wavelengths
Messenger RNA (mRNA) – a class of RNA molecules responsible for transferring
genetic information from the chromosomes to ribosomes where proteins are made;
often abbreviated mRNA
Amino acids – the subunits of proteins; each contains a central carbon atom
attached to an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a distinctive “R”
group
Polypeptides – a strand of amino acids connected to each other through peptide
bonds
Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) – an animal cell line commonly used in
biotechnology studies
Vero cells – African green monkey kidney epithelial cells
HeLa cells – human epithelial cells
Prokaryotic/prokaryote – a cell that lacks membrane-bound organelles
2.2 Review Questions
1.
Which of the follow structures are found in prokaryotic cells:
a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, a plasma membrane, or
one or more chromosomes?
2.
Which of the following structures are found in eukaryotic
cells: a nucleus, ribosomes, mitochondria, a plasma
membrane, or one or more chromosomes?
3.
Describe the relationship between chromosomes, mRNA, and
proteins.
4.
Explain how so many cells from the same organism can look
so different from each other.
2.3 The Molecules of Cells
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Engineered molecules are the basis of many biotechnology products.
Cells are composed of a variety of molecules.
Many molecules found in cells are much larger than atoms.
Very large molecules are found in structural components.
Carbohydrates
• Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
• Ratio 1:2:1
Polysaccharides
• Excellent structural and energy-storing molecules
• Plants store glucose in starch molecules
Monosaccharides
• Monomer units that cells use to build polysaccharides
• Most well known is glucose; an energy molecule
Structural Formula of Amylopectin. Amylopectin is one
form of plant starch, and amylose is another. Plant starch,
such as corn starch, is a key ingredient in many foods.
Structural Formula Glucose. Glucose is a 6-carbon
sugar (C6H12O5) produced by plants during
photosynthesis. Most plants use glucose as an energy
source.
Structural Formula of 5-carbon Sugars. Deoxyribose (left) and
ribose (right) are structural 5-carbon sugars found in the nucleic acids,
DNA and RNA, respectively. Do you see the difference in their structure?
Disaccharides
• Produced when enzymes form a bond between two monosacchrides
• Sucrose is made when fructose and glucose are chemically combined
Lipids
• Often referred to as hydrocarbons
• Three groups of lipids
• Triglycerides
• Phospholipids
• Steroids
Structural Formula of Maltose. Maltose is a disaccharide composed of two glucose
molecules bound at carbon No.1 and carbon No.4. When organisms digest maltose, the
bond holding the glucose monomers together is broken and energy is released.
Proteins
• The most important of the cellular molecules
• Nine different categories of proteins
• Structural
• Enzyme
• Transport
• Contractile
• Hormone
• Antibody
• Pigment
• Recognition
• Toxins
• A typical cell produces more than 2000 proteins
• Amino acids are the monomers of proteins
• There are 20 different amino acids found in
proteins
Nucleic Acids
• The fourth major group of
macromolecules
• Two types of nucleic acids
• DNA
• RNA
Polypeptide Strand. A polypeptide strand is made of amino acids connected to
each other through peptide bonds. A folded, functional polypeptide chain is called a
protein. Each protein has a specific amino acid sequence and folding pattern.
Two Nucleotides. A nucleotide is a molecule composed of a nitrogenous
base (in pink), a 5-carbon sugar (in yellow), and a phosphate group (in blue).
Vocabulary
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Macromolecule – a large molecule usually composed of smaller repeating units chained
together
Organic – molecules that contain carbon and are only produced in living things
Carbohydrates – one of the four classes of macromolecules; organic compounds consisting of
carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, generally in a 1:2:1 ratio
Cytoskeleton – a protein network in the cytoplasm that gives the cell structural support
Monomers – the repeating units that make up polymers
Polymer – a large molecule made of many repeating subunits
Monosaccharide – the monomer unit that cells use to build polysaccharides; also known as a
“single sugar” or “simple sugar”
Disaccharide – a polymer that consists of two sugar molecules
Polysaccharide – a long polymer composed of many simple sugar molecules (usually glucose
or a variation of glucose)
Fructose – a 6-carbon sugar found in high concentration in fruits; also called fruit sugar
Sucrose – a disaccharide composed of glucose and fructose; also called table sugar
Lactose – a disaccharide composed of glucose and galactose; also called milk sugar
Amylose – a plant starch with unbranched glucose chains
Vocabulary
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Amylopectin – a plant starch with branched glucose chains
Glycogen – an animal starch with branched glucose chains
Cellular respiration – the process by which cells break down glucose to create other energy
molecules
Deoxyribose – the 5-carbon sugar found in DNA molecules
Hydrophobic – repelled by water
Triglycerides – a group of lipids that includes animal fats and plant oils
Ribose – the 5-carbon sugar found in RNA molecules
Phospholipids – a class of lipids that are primarily found in membranes of the cell
Hydrophilic – having an attraction for water
Steroids – a group of lipids whose functions include acting as hormones (testosterone and
estrogen), venoms, and pigments
R group – the chemical side-group on an amino acid; in nature, there are 20 different R groups
that are found on amino acids
Ribonucleic acid – the macromolecule that functions in the conversion of genetic instructions
(DNA) into proteins
Nucleotides – the monomer units of nucleic acids
2.3 Review Questions
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Which of the following are monosaccharides: cellulose,
sucrose, glucose, lactose, fructose, or amyolpectin?
2.
Which of the following molecules are proteins that function
as hormones: estrogen, insulin, human growth hormone,
testosterone, or cholesterol?
3.
What distinguishes one amino acid from another?
4.
How are the terms nucleotide, nitrogenous base, and nucleic
acid related to each other?
2.4 The “New” Biotechnology
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The most significant breakthrough came when scientists learned
how to move pieces of DNA within and between organisms.
The first genetic engineering occurred in 1973.
The first genetically engineered product to reach the marketplace
was human insulin.
2.4 Review Questions
1.
What term is used to describe DNA that has been produced by
cutting and pasting together pieces of DNA from two different
organisms?
2.
What organism was the first to be genetically engineered?
3.
What was the first commercial genetically engineered product?
Questions and Comments?