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Chapter 26:
The Tree of Life
An Introduction to Biological Diversity
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 26.1 An artist’s conception of Earth
3 billion years ago
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 26.2 Can organic molecules form in a
reducing atmosphere?
EXPERIMENT
Miller and Urey set up a closed system in their
laboratory to simulate conditions thought to have existed on early
Earth. A warmed flask of water simulated the primeval sea. The
strongly reducing “atmosphere” in the system consisted of H2,
methane (CH4), ammonia (NH3), and water vapor. Sparks were
discharged in the synthetic atmosphere to mimic lightning. A
condenser cooled the atmosphere, raining water and any dissolved
compounds into the miniature sea.
CH4
Water vapor
Electrode
Condenser
RESULTS
As material circulated through the apparatus,
Miller and Urey periodically collected samples for analysis. They
identified a variety of organic molecules, including amino acids such
as alanine and glutamic acid that are common in the proteins of
organisms. They also found many other amino acids and complex,
oily hydrocarbons.
Cold
water
H2O
CONCLUSION
Organic molecules, a first step in the origin of
life, can form in a strongly reducing atmosphere.
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Cooled water
containing
organic
molecules
Sample for
chemical analysis
26.3 Hydro Thermal Vent
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 26.4 Laboratory versions of protobionts
Glucose-phosphate
20 m
Glucose-phosphate
Phosphorylase
Starch
Amylase
Phosphate
Maltose
Maltose
(a) Simple reproduction. This liposome is “giving birth” to smaller
liposomes (LM).
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
(b) Simple metabolism. If enzymes—in this case,
phosphorylase and amylase—are included in the
solution from which the droplets self-assemble,
some liposomes can carry out simple metabolic
reactions and export the products.
Ratio of parent isotope
to daughter isotope
Figure 26.7 Radiometric dating
Accumulating
“daughter”
isotope
1
2
14
Remaining
“parent”
isotope
1
18
2
Time (half-lives)
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3
1 16
4
Figure 26.8 Diversity of life and periods of mass
extinction
600
100
Millions of years ago
400
300
200
500
Number of
taxonomic
Permian mass families
extinction
)
Extinction rate
2,500
2,000
60
1,500
40
Cretaceous
mass extinction
1,000
)
500
Paleozoic
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Mesozoic
Paleogene
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
0
Permian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
Proterozoic eon
0
Carboniferous
20
Cenozoic
Neogene
Extinction rate (
0
Number of families (
80
100
Table 26.1 The Geologic Record
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 26.10 Clock analogy for some key events in
Earth’s history
Cenozoic
Humans
Land plants
Origin of solar
system and
Earth
Animals
4
1
Proterozoic
Eon
Archaean
Eon
Billions of years ago
2
3
Multicellular
eukaryotes
Prokaryotes
Single-celled
eukaryotes
Atmospheric
oxygen
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Figure 26.13 A model of the origin of eukaryotes
through serial endosymbiosis
Cytoplasm
Plasma
membrane
DNA
Ancestral
prokaryote
Infolding of
plasma membrane
Endoplasmic
reticulum
Nuclear envelope
Engulfing
of aerobic
heterotrophic
prokaryote
Nucleus
Cell with nucleus
and endomembrane
system
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion
Ancestral
heterotrophic
eukaryote
Engulfing of
photosynthetic
prokaryote in
some cells
Plastid
Ancestral
Photosynthetic
eukaryote
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Figure 26.18 Earth’s major crustal plates
Eurasian Plate
North
American
Plate
Juan de Fuca
Plate
Caribbean
Plate
Philippine
Plate
Arabian
Plate
Indian
Plate
Cocos Plate
Pacific
Plate
Nazca
Plate
South
American
Plate
Scotia Plate
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African
Plate
Australian
Plate
Antarctic
Plate
Figure 26.19 Events at plate boundaries
Volcanoes and
volcanic islands
Oceanic ridge Trench
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26.19 Lava Flow
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26.19 Volcanic Eruption
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
Figure 26.20 The history of continental drift during
the Phanerozoic
India collided with
Eurasia just 10 million
years ago, forming the
Himalayas, the tallest
and youngest of Earth’s
major mountain
ranges. The continents
continue to drift.
Cenozoic
0
65.5
Eurasia
South
America
Africa
India
Madagascar
Millions of years ago
Antarctica
251
Paleozoic
135
Mesozoic
Laurasia
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By the end of the
Mesozoic, Laurasia
and Gondwana
separated into the
present-day continents.
By the mid-Mesozoic,
Pangaea split into
northern (Laurasia)
and southern
(Gondwana)
landmasses.
At the end of the
Paleozoic, all of
Earth’s landmasses
were joined in the
supercontinent
Pangaea.
Domain Archaea
Domain Bacteria
Universal ancestor
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Domain Eukarya
Charophyceans
Chlorophytes
Red algae
Cercozoans, radiolarians
Stramenopiles (water molds, diatoms, golden algae, brown algae)
Chapter 27
Alveolates (dinoflagellates, apicomplexans, ciliates)
Euglenozoans
Diplomonads, parabasalids
Euryarchaeotes, crenarchaeotes, nanoarchaeotes
Korarchaeotes
Gram-positive bacteria
Cyanobacteria
Spirochetes
Chlamydias
Proteobacteria
Figure 26.22 One current view of biological diversity
Chapter 28
Plants
Fungi
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Animals
Bilaterally symmetrical animals (annelis,
arthropods, molluscs, echinoderms, vertebrate)
Cnidarians (jellies, coral)
Chapter 32
Sponges
Chapter 31
Choanoflagellates
Club fungi
Sac fungi
Chapter 28
Arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi
Zygote fungi
Chytrids
Chapter 30
Amoebozoans (amoebas, slime molds)
Angiosperms
Gymnosperms
Seedless vascular plants (ferns)
Bryophytes (mosses, liverworts, hornworts)
Chapter 29
Chapters 33, 34