Download The Age of Napoleon and the Triumph of Romanticism

The Age of Napoleon and the
Triumph of Romanticism
Chapter 20
Key Topics
• Napoleon’s rise, his coronation as emperor, and his
administrative reforms
• Napoleon’s conquests, the creation of a French
Empire, and Britain’s enduring resistance
• The invasion of Russia and Napoleon’s decline
• The reestablishment of a European order at the
Congress of Vienna
Overview of the Napoleonic Era
•
1790s; the new property owners of the French Revolution(they were
particularly peasants) were loosing confidence in the Directory.
• The citizens 'army, which had successfully defended the revolution, seemed
better able to maintain order.
• Napoleon was the most smart general of the army.
Once in power;
 Consolidated many of the achievements of the revolution
 But ultimately overthrew the republic and declared himself emperor
 Turned France’s army into an instrument for conquest and waged offensive
war for more than 10 years.
 With the rise of patriotic feelings all around Europe, new nationalism was
born.
 This created alliances among Napoleon’s enemies that enabled them
eventually to overwhelm him.
 This era saw the flowering of the romantic movement, a new phase in the
history of European culture. (e.g. nationalism, respect for history and religion)
(Kagan, et. al. 2003, p.371)
• Directory; The democratic constitution of
1793 (not been put into effect because of war
conditions) was replaced by ‘Constitution of
the Year III’ which allowed for representative
government through a bicameral legislature
which selected a 5-man executive body known
as the Directory, but property qualifications
for voting were introduced, in effect blocking
the participation of the poorer sections of
society
The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
Early Military Victories
•
The major Problem was; the restoration of the stability of France .
•
The chief danger to the Directory came from royalists. They believed in the restoration
of the Bourbon monarchy to restore the stability of France.
•
1797: Spring elections
Constitutional monarchists and their sympathizers won
the majority of offices
•
4th Sep, 1797:The Directory staged a coup d’etat to preserve the
republic
What happened as a result of this coup d’etat?
Men loyal to the Directory took control of the legislature;
They imposed censorship;
Exiled some of thier enemies;
Asked Napoleon Bonaparte to protect the government.
•
Napoleon Bonaparte(1769-1821)
He was the officer who had put
down the riots spawned in 1795 by the
Thermidorian Reaction( Property
qualifications for voting were
introduced by Directory which blocked
the participation of the poorer sections
of society. This le dto riots against
Directory. Soldiers, however, were
given the right to vote. With their
support the Directory managed to stay
in power. )
Born on the island of Corsica in
1769, (just a year after island came
under French control), Napoleon was a
“Child of the Enlightenment”, who
rose quickly through military ranks to
become a general & hero in
revolutionary France. Twice he came
with his soldiers to defence of the
Directory. Yet, while commonly called
a military “genius”, he also led military
campaigns that had terrible results.
Edmund Burke’s Prediction:
True or False?
Burke (1729-1797) was a British
parliamentarian & political
philosopher sometimes referred to as
the ‘father of conservatism’. Written
straight after the French Revolution
began, Burke’s Reflections on the Louis
Revolution in France (1790) was
strongly antirevolutionary, arguing
that revolution would also destroy all
that was good in society, create
disorder, & lead ultimately to the
coming to power of a tyrant seen as
capable of restoring order.
XVI
Revolution
Napoleon I
Early Military Victories of Napoleon
Bonaparte
• 1796 & 1797 he had spectacular military successes against Italian &
Austrian forces, & Austria forced to accept peace.
• 1797 he again came to the defence of the Directory against its (&
Napoleon’s own) royalist enemies.
• 1798 he invaded Egypt. The campaign became doomed to failure
when his fleet was destroyed by British Admiral Nelson, (making it
impossible for him to get the fresh supplies & men). By 1802, with
continued pressure from the Ottomans & British, Napoleon forced
to completely abandon the Egyptian campaign. He had personally
already left his troops & returned to France (some say thereby
committing treason[the crime of betraying one’s government ]), in
Aug.1799.
The Rise of Napoleon Bonaparte
The Constitution of the Year VIII
• As a result of the loss of confidence in the Directory, one of the
directors( the Abbe Sieyes) planed a plot to establish a new
government.
• He visioned an execute strong enough to ignore the whims(desires
and caprices) of the electorate.
• Sieyes asked Napoleon for his military assistance.
• 9th November(18 Brumaire), 1799: Troops commanded by
Napoleon dispersed the legislature and cleared the way for Sieyes’s
faction to propose a new constitution. (Coup d'état of Brumaire)
• December, 1799: But, Napoleon swept him aside and issued the
Constitution of the Year VIII.
• Under the Constitution of the Year VII (1799) Napoleon, as First
Consul became the most powerful man in France, & 5 years later, in
1804, declared himself Emperor.
The Constitution of the Year VIII
• This seemed like a republican and democratic
gesture.
• But this document vested full authority in a
magistrate called the First Consul, the office
claimed by the Napoleon.
• He mainly combined the military force and the
popular rhetoric of revolution and nationalism
to mobilize a nation for imperial expansion.
French Revolution from
different perspectives
For the members of the Third Estate,
it had achieved its goals
Hereditary privilege was abolished
Obstacles to the careers of
professionals and merchants had been
removed
The peasants were satisfied with the
land they had acquired and the
termination of their feudal duties.
The propertied class( politically
influential and conservative) did not
want to share their new privileges with
the lower social orders.
They believed that Napoleon would
provide the best defence for the status
quo, thus approved his constitution in
a national plebiscite.
The French Revolution
ended with Napoleon’s
Consulate.
•
•
•
•
The Consulate in France(1799-1804)
Suppressing Foreign Enemies and Domestic
Options
1800-1802; he maked peace with France’s
enemies( Russia, Austria, Britain).
Having secured the nation externally, he set
about restoring peace internally.
He courted his enemies, issued a general
amnesty, and provided employment for
people of all political persuasions.
He created a highly centralized administration.
The Consulate in France(1799-1804)
Concordat with the Roman Catholic Church
• For Napoleon religion was an instrument of social
control. He was determined to mobilize it for the
benefit of the state.
• 1801: He concluded a concordat with Pope Pius VII. He
restored the official status of the Roman Catholic
Church, but not any power or independence. Its clergy
had to swear an oath of loyalty to the state.
• The church gave up claims to the property. State paid
their salaries and provided them financial support.
• The influence of Roman Catholicism was further
countered by extending privileges to Protestant and
Jewish groups.
The Civil Code of 1804
Confirmed the abolition of
privileges based on birth.
State offices were no longer to be
sold, appointments were to be
made on the basis of merit
Workers organizations were
forbidden.
Fathers were granted extensive
control over their children and men
over their wives.
Also introduced rational
measures & practices in
administration of Empire,
supported the sciences & expanded
scope of education.
The Consulate in France(1799
1804) The Napoleonic Code
• In 1802 a plebiscite granted
Napoleon the office of consul for
life.
• He then revised the constitution
to give himself supreme power.
• He centralized the authority by
issuing a new codification of
French law-The Civil Code of
1804- so called Napoleonic
Code.
• It safeguarded property and
established social order.
The Consulate in France(1799-1804)
Establishing a Dynasty
In 1804, a failed assassination attempt gave
Napoleon an excuse to end the republic and
declare himslef emperor.
From Consul to Emperor
Napoleon placing
the crown on his
own head, instead
of being crowned
by the head of the
Church (1804)
Consul vs. Emperor
Note the plainer
appearance of
Napoleon as
Consul, compared
to the much more
grand scene of
him once his
imperial ambition
had been
revealed & he
had seated
himself as
Emperor
Napoleon’s Empire(1804-1814)
• Between his coronation as emperor in 1804
and his defeat at Waterloo in 1815, Napoleon
conquered most of Europe.
• His weapon was French nation itself. A nation
that had been militarly mobilized by its
revolution.
Napoleonic Wars
• Napoleon’s rule saw an almost constant series of wars in Europe. He
had risen to power at a time of military crisis, but defeated &/or
made peace with all his enemies by 1802. (Including the Concordat
made with the Catholic Church). After spending some time on
internal reforms & the consolidation of his power, Napoleon soon
turned to vision of establishing a great empire.
• Peace finally made with Britain in 1802, but by 1803 the 2 countries
were at war again. By 1805 the British had organized a new coalition
& opposition to France was eventually to include Prussia, Russia,
Austria & Sweden. Again displaying his military “genius” Napoleon
defeated his enemies one by one, forcing them to accept peace,
(notably with Russia in the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807); Only Britain
remaining at war, & she having only a limited land army. It was only
the sixth coalition of 1812-1814 which finally decisively defeated the
French.
Napoleon’s “Grand Empire”
FRANCE
Satellite States
Allied States
Napoleon’s Empire(1804-1814)
The Continental System(I)
• Napoleon considered an invasion of Britain,
even with its superior navy & natural defence
as an island. Thought that by diverting British
ships to other areas & opening up Channel for
24 hours he could find gap to land a French
army in Britain. With decisive defeat of French
navy (& allied Spanish forces) in Battle of
Trafalgar, even this idea became impossible, &
instead Napoleon turned to economic warfare
to defeat Britain.
Napoleon’s Empire(1804-1814)
The Continental System(II)
• The Continental System was based on idea of embargo.
Industrial Revolution was advancing in Britain, the center of
manufacturing in Europe. Napoleon believed Britain’s
economy would collapse if it could not sell products on
European markets. Having conquered or allied with all
major powers in continental Europe, Napoleon issued
Berlin Decree of Nov. 1806, forcing rest of Europe to stop
importing from Britain. All, except Portugal, complied, but
embargo ended-up hurting these European territories more
than Britain (!), & ultimately they began to oppose
Continental System. On Dec 31st 1810, Russia declared it
would no longer accept Continental System. Napoleon felt
betrayed by Tsar Alexander I.
Reasons for the Failure of the Continental
System
• British Counter-Blockade of continental Europe
• Insufficient alternative means of transportation (i.e.
alternatives to sea routes)
• Infant Industries of mainland Europe unable to replace
previous supply of goods from Britain.
• Britain made up for lost trade with Europe by finding new
markets around the world(North and South America,
eastern Mediterranean)
• British monopoly of many “luxury goods”
• Smuggling; Napoleon refused to help things by
establishing free trade within his empire and he imposed
tariffs that favored France and this encouraged
smuggling.
• His conquests spread the Enlightenment reforms and the
ideals of France’s revolution. He imposed Napoleonic Code in
everywhere he ruled. Hereditary social distinctions were
abolished, feudal dues disappeared, peasants were freed
from serfdom, the guilds and oligarchies that had long
dominated urban life were deprived of power, churches were
subordinated to the state and policies of religious toleration
replaced church monopolies.(p. 375)
March on Moscow ... & back!
Napoleon’s Russian Campaign
• Napoleon raised a massive army, the “Grand Army” of
around ½ a million men (by some estimates more!). Yet,
only about ⅓ were Frenchmen (& thus likely less
committed to his cause). On June 23rd 1812 the campaign
began
• Things did not go according to plan! Napoleon had
intended a short campaign, (his army had only 3 weeks
worth of supplies), with a decisive battle against Russian
forces close to the Russian border. The Russians, however,
withdrew deeper & deeper into the Russian heartland
forcing Napoleon’s forces to follow
Napoleon’s Russian Campaign (2)
• Many of Napoleon’s men began to die as the harsh Russian
winter set in, & the Russian “scorched earth” policy
(burning the lands they left-behind as they withdrew)
meant that Napoleon’s forces could find little food or
shelter. Hunger & disease spread.
• Despite eventually taking control of Moscow, (which was
also put on fire before they entered) Napoleon’s forces
could stay no longer & began to withdraw with Napoleon
having concerns about losing control in France itself. On the
long, cold march back to Paris many more died, often as a
result of Russian “hit-and-run” attacks. Only about 20,000
men made it back!
Napoleon Enters Moscow
The Demise of the “Grand Army”
The light grey area represents the size of the Grand Army as it advanced to
Moscow, the black shows it as it withdrew from Russia
Exile to Elba
After being forced to retreat from Russia,
Napoleon fought a series of often
brilliant battles in an effort to defend his
crumbling empire. But, odds grew
progressively worse as more states,
seeing him weakened, joined the
coalition against him. By the end of
March 1814 Paris was occupied & on the
11th of April Napoleon was forced to
surrender unconditionally. He was
allowed to keep the title of Emperor...
But his “Empire” was limited to the small
island of Elba to which he was exiled.
“The Hundred Days”
• “The Hundred Days” is name for period during which Napoleon
escaped from Elba & returned to France, raising new army (less welltrained) & claiming he would now be satisfied with constitutional
monarchy & limited borders for France.
• Why did Napoleon begin the Hundred Days? :
- Ambition
- Concern for Family
- Rumors of being exiled further afar
• While French people generally greeted their charismatic ruler
enthusiastically, & while unpopular restored Bourbon monarch –
Louis XVIII – had fled, European powers not convinced by Napoleon’s
promises
• Napoleon finally defeated by combined force of British & Prussian
troops at Battle of Waterloo that began 18th June 1815
Louis XVIII
Louis XVI
Louis XVIII
Louis XVII
Louis XVIII was brother of
Louis XVI. He was restored to
the throne by the European
powers upon the defeat of
Napoleon. (Louis XVI’s son
having died in prison in 1795
during the French Revolution
– never having been officially
crowned). After being forced
to flee during the Hundred
Days, Louis XVIII returned
again to France where he
reigned as king till his death in
1824.
St. Helena ... THE END!
The German
cartoon on the
right ridicules
the defeated
Napoleon,
showing him
commanding
an army of
mice during
his exile in St.
Helena
St. Helena in Perspective
The choice of St.
Helena was no
coincidence. Unlike
Elba, this island was
not as pleasant a
location. In the
middle of the South
Atlantic, thousands
of miles from any
major land-mass,
escape was now
virtually impossible.
It was here that
Napoleon was to die
in 1821