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Understanding Individual Differences

The Concept of Personality

Sources of Personality Differences
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Personality Structure*
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Personality and Behavior*

The Concept of Attitude*
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Attitudes and Behavior
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Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment*

Individual Differences and Ethical Behavior*
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Sources of Personality Differences
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Heredity: Research on the nature-nurture controversy*
indicates that about 50% of the variance in personality is
inherited, thus setting limits on development
Environment: Shapes at least 50% of personality?
 Culture
 Family
 Group Membership
 Life Experiences
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Personality Structure:
The “Big Five” Personality Factors*
(Each factor is a continuum of many related traits)
Adjustment
(Stable, confident, effective)
(Nervous, self-doubting, moody)
Sociability
(Gregarious , energetic, self-dramatizing)
(Shy, unassertive, withdrawn)
Conscientiousness
(Planful, neat, dependable)
(Impulsive, careless, irresponsible)
Agreeableness
(Warm, tactful, considerate)
(Independent, cold, rude)
Intellectual Openness
(Imaginative, curious, original)
(Dull, unimaginative, literal-minded)
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Personality and Behavior:
Specific Personality Traits* and
Their Linkage to the “Big Five”
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Self-esteem (“self-worth”) is part of adjustment
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Locus of control (“fate vs. personal control”) is part of
conscientiousness
Introversion and extraversion (preference for thinking
vs. interacting--NOT “social skills”) are part of sociability
Dogmatism (generalized rigidity of beliefs) and
authoritarianism (narrower personality type who prefers
to follow orders) are part of intellectual openness
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REMEMBER: Traits are continua—people may be high,
low, or in-between. Most people are in-between!
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Goal Orientation as a Personality Trait
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Definition: The preference for one type of goal
versus another. Two orientations are important in
understanding individual job performance:
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Learning goal orientation – a predisposition to
develop competence by acquiring new skills and
mastering new situations; may be associated with better
individual job performance
Performance goal orientation – a predisposition to
demonstrate and validate competence by seeking
favorable judgments from others (e.g., a supervisor) and
avoiding negative judgments; may be associated with a
“helpless” response pattern and weak performance
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The Concept of Attitude*
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Definition: Relatively lasting feelings, beliefs, and
behavior tendencies directed toward specific people,
groups, ideas, issues, or objects.
Attitudes consist of three components*:
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AFFECTIVE = feelings
COGNITIVE = beliefs
BEHAVIORAL = predispositions to act
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Attitudes and Behavior
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Attitudes do not normally predict or cause
behavior in a simple and direct way
Three principles relate attitudes to behavior:
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General attitudes best predict general behaviors
Specific attitudes best predict specific behaviors
The less time that elapses between attitude measurement
and behavior, the more consistent will be the
relationship between them
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Effects of Work Factors on Job Satisfaction*
(Def: The general attitude toward a job--NOT directly related to
performance, but IS related to turnover, absenteeism, and health)
Job satisfaction is enhanced when:
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Work is challenging and interesting but not tiring.
Rewards are equitable and provide feedback.
Working conditions match physical needs and promote
goal attainment.
Self-esteem is high.
Others in the organization hold similar views and facilitate
reward attainment.
Policies and procedures are clear, don’t conflict, and aid
goal attainment.
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Organizational Commitment*
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Refers to the strength of an employee’s involvement in and
identification with the organization
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Strong organizational commitment entails:
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Strong belief in/acceptance of an organization’s goals and values
Willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of the
organization
Strong desire to maintain membership in the organization
Higher commitment is negatively related to absenteeism
and turnover, and positively related to productivity
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Changes in Organizational Commitment Over Time
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Initial Commitment is determined by individual
characteristics and degree of congruence between their
expectations and organizational realities
Subsequent Commitment is influenced by job
experiences, including many of the same factors which
influence job satisfaction (such as pay, interpersonal
relationships, working conditions, advancement
opportunities, etc.)
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Ethical Attitudes and Behavior
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Characterized by significant individual differences
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People are more likely to behave ethically if*:
 They have reached a higher level of cognitive moral
development
 They possess a high internal locus of control
 Organizational culture supports and reinforces specific
ethical attitudes and behavior
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Types of Management Ethics*
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Immoral management
 Devoid of any ethical principles, characterized
by exploitation for corporate or personal gain
Moral management
 Guided by appropriate ethical principles
Amoral management
 Indifference toward ethical principles,
characterized by a lack of awareness of ethical
issues
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Steps for Instilling Moral Management*
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2.
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Identify ethical attitudes crucial for the
organization’s operations, and use training
programs to foster them
Select employees with desired attitudes
Incorporate ethics in the performance evaluation
process
Establish a work culture that reinforces ethical
attitudes
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Personal/Cohort Case Questions
1.
Describe possible sources of personality differences between you and
members of your cohort
2.
How will you manage conflicts in your cohorts
3.
What trait of your cohort best enhances your best trait
4.
Characterize a person you know that your believe possesses great
personal qualities
5.
Who is your greatest influence? Why
6.
The one thing I need to change about my people skills is and why?
7.
My cohort can count on me because?
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