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Chapter 3
The Nature & Culture of Sexuality
Nature v. Nurture
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Essentialists v. Social constructivists
Moral & legal implications
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Excuses, no responsibility
Punishment (unfair & futile, rehabilitation &
deterrent?)
Decision rule
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No cultural variation = nature
Cultural variation = nurture
Cultural Influences
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Taliban
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Western world
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Restrictive laws against female sexuality
Adultery punishable by death
Sex on TV, nude beaches & pornography
Variation (porn illegal in some states)
Impacts strongly on morals, attitudes,
preferences & choices
Morris (1996)
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Female circumcision or
female genital mutilation
(FGM)
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Ancient practice from all
continents
Greek papyrus from 163
BC references FGM
Decreed by no religion
(some think it is)
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Found in 26 African
countries
Wide variation in practice
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5% in Uganda & Zaire
98% in Somali
6,000 girls/day
Morris (1996)
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3 types of FGM (done at 4-8 years of age)
Type I: Excision of clitoral hood (leaves clitoris intact)
Type II: Clitoridectomy involving removal of
clitoris and portions of labia minoria
Type III: Infibulation involving removal of
clitoris and portions of labia majora/minor &
vulva stitched together
Morris (1996)
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Attitudes towards FGM
Western world: Barbaric & abusive
Favorable in most African countries
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Onadeko (1985) Nigerian women (N = 453)
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67% in favor
64.3% of 28 men not in favor
Numerous other studies find similar results
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Somalian refugees in US favor FGM
Morris (1996)
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Reasons for
Culture
Tradition
Ensures virginity &
marriage w/ large dowry
Ensure fidelity
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Reasons against
Barbaric tradition
Violates human rights
Child abuse
Health problems
‘Is it torture or cruel or inhuman when the victims
perceive it differently?’
- Morris (1996, p. 17)
Widmer et al. (1998)
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Examined sexual attitudes in 24 countries
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Sex before marriage
Sex before age 16
Extramarital sex
Homosexual sex
Asked if these types of sex were
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Always wrong
Almost always wrong
Only sometimes wrong
Not at all wrong
Widmer et al. (1998)
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Premarital sex, sex before 16 & extramarital sex
showed large agreement across countries
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Most (61%) view premarital sex ‘not wrong at all’
Most (58%) view sex before 16 as ‘always wrong’
Most (66%) view extramarital sex as ‘always wrong’
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USA 80%
Substantial variation on homosexual sex
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59% overall said ‘always wrong’
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Hungary 83%, USA 70%, Bulgaria 80%
24% overall said ‘not wrong at all’
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Netherlends 65%, Canada 46%, Slovenia 42%
Widmer et al. (1998)
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Cluster 2. Sexual conservatives
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4 clusters of countries identified (see article)
USA, Ireland, Poland
Cluster 3. Homosexual permissives
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Netherlands, Norway, Spain, Canada, Czech
Republic
Widmer et al. (1998)
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Important data because it provides way to test
nature v. cultural explanations
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Netherlands (65% homosexuality not wrong at all)
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Rate of homosexuality higher than less permissive
countries suggests cultural influence
Desirability bias absent (likely to tell truth in permissive
culture)
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Same rate supports nature (& validates earlier data)
Class Data (N = xx, Female = xx)
Always
Wrong?
Almost
Sometime
Pre
< 16 /71
Extra /80
Homo /70
Bold = Widmer USA data
Why the difference?
Not at all
/19
Widmer et al. (1998)
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US conservative attitudes but not behavior
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Extramarital affairs estimated at 50%
80% Americans view this as ‘always wrong’
Why?
Attitudes
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Attitudes contain 3
components:
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Cognitions, beliefs (cheating
is wrong!)
Emotions (Anger, disgust)
Behavior tendencies (I intend
never to cheat)
Attitudes can predict
behavior: No cheating!
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Not always...
Attitudes
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Attitudes don’t predict behavior when
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Components inconsistent (cognition v emotion)
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Levels of analysis mixed (broad-> specific)
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Believe pornography is wrong but feel excited
Sex is good (broad) v. masturbating to Victoria Secret
Norms/Vested interest
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Desirability bias impacts Rs (homosexuality)
Gain by behaving in ways inconsistent with attitudes
Reaction Paper II: Cultural Morality
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Upon learning of the great variability in sexual
attitudes across cultures many take a moral
absolutist stance, arguing that cultures that
disagree with our own are simply morally
WRONG. Do you take this view with regards
to sexual behaviors like homosexuality? Or do
you take a moral relativistic stance, believing
that moral absolutes don’t exist & each culture
defines what is and is not right for them?
Explain your position.
Session II
Nature Influences
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Hormones prenatally impact brain development
& sexual behavior later in life
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Masculinizing hormones masculinize behavior
Feminizing hormones feminize behavior
Nature Influences
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Sex Hormones (androgens) impact sexual
behavior
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Erotica increases T levels
T +rd w/ sexual behaviors, attitudes
Sex offenders treated by chemically reducing T &
erectile dysfunction by increasing T
Follicular stage of menstrual cycle +rd w/ arousal
Nature Influences
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Sex on the brain video
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How did early exposure to testosterone impact
female rat behavior?
How did early exposure to estrogen impact male rat
behavior?
Can this happen with humans?
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YEP!
Nature Influences
Cross-cultural consistencies suggest nature
Sexual behavior - little variation
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Love & jealousy - ubiquitous in human culture
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Kamasutra, medieval times, 2002
We have been doing same things for millennia
Female infidelity more condemned
Nature impacts sexual development & behavior
Class Data (N = xx, Female = xx)
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Upset over partner having sex with another?
Mean
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Male
Female
Nature Influences
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Why?
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Evolutionary pressures
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Males have uncertainty of paternity
Males preventing sexual infidelity pass > genes
Males > power in all known societies
Nature Influences
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Promiscuity
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Greater investment of female than male
More costs for females than males
Selection pressures lead females to be less
promiscuous
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Men more interested in causal sex
Women want to know their partner longer
Class Data (N = xx, Female = xx)
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How long do YOU need to know someone
before having sex with them?
Mean (Months)
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Male
Female
Nature Influences
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Evolutionary theory is a biological account
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Connections between humans, mammals, primates
Emphasizes biological processes like reproduction
Evolution theory is a functional account
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Behaviors, characteristics that served an adaptive
function were passed on via natural selection
Many present day behaviors evolutionary artifacts
Not necessarily conscious, willful behavior
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Distal not proximal cause
Statistical Significance
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t = inferential statistic indicating difference
between groups in population
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p = significance level (how likely difference would
occur if TRUE, population difference = 0.0)
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< .05 traditional significance level (1/20)
2/1000 if true difference = 0.0
Assume difference is real
Class Data (N = xx, Female = xx)
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For Y/N 1 = yes 2 = no, others # times/year
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Item
VIDEO (Y/N)
VIDFREQ
BOOK (Y/N)
BOOKFREQ
PORNPURC (Y/N)
BUYFREQ
Male
Female
t
p
Nature & Culture
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Guttentag & Secord (1983)
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Culture changes as a result of ratio of males:females
Sexual morality reflects majority gender
Male surplus/female scarcity = women highly
valued & sexually restrictive/prudish morals
Female surplus/male scarcity = women devalued &
sexually permissive morals
Why?
Guttentag & Secord (1983)
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Supply & demand: Scarcity confers power
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Women/men are precious, valuable and powerful
when rare
Suggests that:
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Men desire promiscuous, commitment free sex
Women desire stable, committed relationships
Conclusion
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Nature impacts development, behaviors
Nurture/culture impacts attitudes, morals
Combine to impact all aspects of sexuality