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LECTURE PRESENTATIONS For CAMPBELL BIOLOGY, NINTH EDITION Jane B. Reece, Lisa A. Urry, Michael L. Cain, Steven A. Wasserman, Peter V. Minorsky, Robert B. Jackson Chapter 29 Plant Diversity I: How Plants Colonized Land Lectures by Erin Barley Kathleen Fitzpatrick © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Overview: The Greening of Earth • Around 500 million years ago, small plants, fungi, and animals emerged on land • Now approximately 290,000 species • Have terrestrial ancestors • Do not include protists • Supply oxygen • Ultimate source of food for land animals © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.1 1 m Concept 29.1: Land plants evolved from green algae • called charophytes • share four key traits with only charophytes – Rings of cellulose-synthesizing complexes – Peroxisome enzymes – minimize loss of organic products during photorespiration – Structure of flagellated sperm – Formation of a phragmoplast – precusor to cell plate – Comparison of nuclear and chloroplast genes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.3 5 mm Chara species, a pond organism Coleochaete orbicularis, a disk-shaped charophyte that also lives in ponds (LM) 40 m 1 m Adaptations Enabling the Move to Land • sporopollenin prevents exposed zygotes from drying out; also found in plant spore walls • provided unfiltered sun, • more plentiful CO2, • nutrient-rich soil, and • few herbivores or pathogens • Land presented challenges: a scarcity of water and lack of structural support © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Derived Traits of Plants • Four key traits appear in nearly all land plants but are absent in the charophytes – 1. Alternation of generations and multicellular, dependent embryos – 2. Walled spores produced in sporangia – 3. Multicellular gametangia – 4. Apical meristems © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Alternation of Generations and Multicellular, Dependent Embryos • gametophyte - haploid and produces haploid gametes by mitosis • Fusion of the gametes gives rise to the diploid sporophyte, which produces haploid spores by meiosis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.5a Gametophyte (n) Mitosis n Gamete from another plant Mitosis n FERTILIZATION 2n Sporophyte (2n) Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) n Spore Gamete n MEIOSIS Key Zygote Mitosis Alternation of generations 1 m The Flow • Sporophyte (meiosis)spores (mitosis) to produce gametophytereleases gametes produced by mitosisfertiliztion produces zygotemitosis develops a sporophyte Walled Spores Produced in Sporangia • The sporophyte produces spores in organs called sporangia • Diploid cells called sporocytes undergo meiosis to generate haploid spores • Spore walls contain sporopollenin, which makes them resistant to harsh environments © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.5c Spores Sporangium Longitudinal section of Sphagnum sporangium (LM) Sporophyte Gametophyte 1 m Sporophytes and sporangia of Sphagnum (a moss) Multicellular Gametangia • Gametes are produced within organs called gametangia • Female gametangia, - archegonia, produce eggs and are the site of fertilization • Male gametangia - antheridia, produce and release sperm © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.5d Female gametophyte Archegonia, each with an egg (yellow) Antheridia (brown), containing sperm Male gametophyte Archegonia and antheridia of Marchantia (a liverwort) 1 m Apical Meristems • Plant growth occurs at this structural site • Cells from the apical meristems differentiate into various tissues © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.5e Apical meristem of shoot Developing leaves Apical meristems of plant roots and shoots Apical meristem of root Root 100 m Shoot 1 m 100 m • Additional derived traits include a. Cuticle, a waxy covering of the epidermis b. Mycorrhizae, symbiotic associations between fungi and land plants that may have helped plants without true roots to obtain nutrients c. Secondary compounds that deter herbivores and parasites © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. The Origin and Diversification of Plants • Fossil evidence indicates that plants were on land at least 475 million years ago • Fossilized spores and tissues have been extracted from 475-million-yearold rocks © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.6 (a) Fossilized spores (b) Fossilized sporophyte tissue 1 m Figure 29.7 1 Origin of land plants (about 475 mya) 2 Origin of vascular plants (about 425 mya) 3 Origin of extant seed plants (about 305 mya) Mosses Land plants ANCESTRAL 1 GREEN ALGA Nonvascular plants (bryophytes) Liverworts Hornworts Pterophytes (ferns, horsetails, whisk ferns) 3 Angiosperms 500 450 400 350 300 Millions of years ago (mya) 50 0 1 m Seed plants Gymnosperms Vascular plants 2 Seedless vascular plants Lycophytes (club mosses, spike mosses, quillworts) • Land plants can be informally grouped based on the presence or absence of vascular tissue • Most plants have vascular tissue; these constitute the vascular plants • Nonvascular plants are commonly called bryophytes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • A seed - an embryo and nutrients surrounded by a protective coat • Seed plants: – Gymnosperms, the “naked seed” plants, including the conifers – Angiosperms, the flowering plants © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Table 29. 1 1 m Concept 29.2:Dominant gametophyte stage • Bryophytes are represented today by three phyla of small herbaceous (nonwoody) plants – Liverworts – Hornworts – Mosses © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.8-1 “Bud” Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) “Bud” Spores Male gametophyte (n) Gametophore Spore dispersal Female gametophyte (n) Peristome Sporangium MEIOSIS Mature sporophytes Rhizoid Seta Capsule (sporangium) 2 mm Foot Capsule with peristome (LM) 1 m Female gametophytes Figure 29.8-2 “Bud” Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) “Bud” Sperm Antheridia Male gametophyte (n) Egg Spores Gametophore Spore dispersal Female gametophyte (n) Peristome Sporangium MEIOSIS Mature sporophytes Archegonia Rhizoid FERTILIZATION (within archegonium) Seta Capsule (sporangium) 2 mm Foot Capsule with peristome (LM) 1 m Female gametophytes Figure 29.8-3 “Bud” Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) Protonemata (n) “Bud” Antheridia Male gametophyte (n) Sperm Egg Spores Gametophore Spore dispersal Female gametophyte (n) Peristome Sporangium MEIOSIS Mature sporophytes Archegonia Rhizoid FERTILIZATION Zygote (within archegonium) (2n) Seta Capsule (sporangium) Foot Embryo 2 mm Archegonium Capsule with peristome (LM) Young sporophyte (2n) Female gametophytes 1 m 2 mm Figure 29.8a 1 m Capsule with peristome (LM) Animation: Moss Life Cycle © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.9a Thallus Gametophore of female gametophyte Sporophyte Foot Seta Marchantia polymorpha, a “thalloid” liverwort Marchantia sporophyte (LM) 500 m Capsule (sporangium) Plagiochila deltoidea, a “leafy” liverwort 1 m Figure 29.9b An Anthoceros hornwort species Sporophyte Gametophyte 1 m Figure 29.9c Polytrichum commune, hairy-cap moss Capsule Seta Sporophyte (a sturdy plant that takes months to grow) Gametophyte 1 m The Ecological and Economic Importance of Mosses • Mosses are capable of inhabiting diverse and sometimes extreme environments, but are especially common in moist forests and wetlands • Some mosses might help retain nitrogen in the soil © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Sphagnum, or “peat moss,” forms extensive deposits of partially decayed organic material known as peat • Peat can be used as a source of fuel • Sphagnum is an important global reservoir of organic carbon • Overharvesting of Sphagnum and/or a drop in water level in peatlands could release stored CO2 to the atmosphere © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.11 (a) Peat being harvested from a peatland (b) “Tollund Man,” a bog mummy dating from 405–100 B.C.E. 1 m Concept 29.3: Ferns and other seedless vascular plants were the first plants to grow tall • Vascular plants began to diversify during the Devonian and Carboniferous periods • Vascular tissue allowed these plants to grow tall • Seedless vascular plants have flagellated sperm and are usually restricted to moist environments © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Life Cycles with Dominant Sporophytes • In contrast with bryophytes, sporophytes of seedless vascular plants are the larger generation, as in familiar ferns • The gametophytes are tiny plants that grow on or below the soil surface Animation: Fern Life Cycle © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.13-1 Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) MEIOSIS Spore dispersal Sporangium Sporangium Mature sporophyte (2n) Sorus Fiddlehead (young leaf) 1 m Figure 29.13-2 Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) MEIOSIS Spore dispersal Spore (n) Rhizoid Underside of mature gametophyte (n) Sporangium Sporangium Antheridium Young gametophyte Archegonium Egg Mature sporophyte (2n) FERTILIZATION Sorus Fiddlehead (young leaf) Sperm 1 m Figure 29.13-3 Key Haploid (n) Diploid (2n) MEIOSIS Spore dispersal Spore (n) Rhizoid Underside of mature gametophyte (n) Sporangium Sporangium Antheridium Young gametophyte Mature sporophyte (2n) Sorus New sporophyte Sperm Archegonium Egg Zygote (2n) Gametophyte Fiddlehead (young leaf) 1 m FERTILIZATION Vascular Plants • 1. Xylem conducts most of the water and minerals and includes dead cells called tracheids • Water-conducting cells are strengthened by lignin and provide structural support • 2. Phloem consists of living cells and distributes sugars, amino acids, and other organic products • Vascular tissue allowed for increased height, which provided an evolutionary advantage © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Roots • Roots are organs that anchor vascular plants • They enable vascular plants to absorb water and nutrients from the soil –Roots may have evolved from subterranean stems © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Evolution of Leaves • Leaves are organs that increase the surface area of vascular plants, thereby capturing more solar energy that is used for photosynthesis © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. • Most seedless vascular plants are homosporous, producing one type of spore that develops into a bisexual gametophyte • All seed plants and some seedless vascular plants are heterosporous • Heterosporous species produce megaspores, which give rise to female gametophytes, and microspores, which give rise to male gametophytes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.15a 2.5 cm 1 cm Selaginella moellendorffii, a spike moss Isoetes gunnii, a quillwort Strobili (clusters of sporophylls) Diphasiastrum 1 m tristachyum, a club moss Figure 29.15b Equisetum arvense, field horsetail Athyrium filix-femina, lady fern Vegetative stem 1.5 cm 25 cm Strobilus on fertile stem 4 cm Psilotum nudum, a whisk fern 1 m The Significance of Seedless Vascular Plants • The ancestors of modern lycophytes, horsetails, and ferns grew to great heights during the Devonian and Carboniferous, forming the first forests • Increased growth and photosynthesis removed CO2 from the atmosphere and may have contributed to global cooling at the end of the Carboniferous period • The decaying plants of these Carboniferous forests eventually became coal © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 29.16 Fern Lycophyte trees Horsetail Tree trunk covered with small leaves 1 m Lycophyte tree reproductive structures