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Classification and Taxonomy Biology 1 11.1 Taxonomy Branch of biology that classifies organisms into a series of groups called taxa. The most common system used today has 7 taxa: kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. The largest taxa is kingdom, it has the most numbers of organisms. The smallest is species which has the fewest in it. Taxonomy of Life All Living Things Monera Archaebacteria Eubacteria Protista Fungi Plantae Animalia Taxonomy … Organisms are named using their genus as their first name and the species as the last name. Genus is always capitalized, species is NEVER capitalized, both are italicized. Giving organisms two names is known as binomial nomenclature. Sometimes three names are used when a subspecies is known. Then it is trinomial nomenclature. More Taxonomy…. Plant taxonomists use the term “division” instead of phylum. By using DNA samples, relationships between organisms can be determined with great accuracy. Bacillus subtilis Abutilon theophrasti Micrurus fulvius 11.2 Dicotomous Key Organisms are placed into their correct orders by using a dicotomous key which is a series of questions. http://pals.sri.com/tasks/58/DichotomousKey/directs.html Viruses Characteristics of viruses NON-living organisms Smaller than the smallest prokaryotic cells. Do not have the characteristics of living things. Can only reproduce if they get inside a host organism. If they infect a bacterium cell, they are called bacteriophages. Viral Structure Structure: •Inner core composed of nucleic acid, DNA or RNA, surrounded by a capsid. Lytic cycle is the method by which viruses reproduce themselves. In order to infect a plant or animal cell, the capsid must match a receptor site on the host cell. Specific Viruses The virus that causes AIDS can only attach to white blood cells. Antibiotics are not effective against viruses. Antibiotic means “against life” and they only work against bacterial infections because bacteria are living organisms. Viruses are NOT living!!!!! Antibiotics are sometimes effective against fungal infections. 11.3 Kingdom Monera Monera The only kingdom to include prokaryotes is the kingdom monera. Prokaryotes vs Eukaryotes Prokaryotes Do NOT have a true nucleus Do NOT have membrane-bound organelles DO have a cell wall outside the cell membrane Monerans are the most widespread and most numerous organisms on earth Sometimes divided into 2 kingdoms: archaebacteria and eubacteria. Archaebacteria Believed to be the oldest living organisms Can live in harsh environments such as hot sulfur springs, volcanic deep-sea vents on the ocean floor, the Great Salt Lake, and even the intestines of mammals. Some are autotrophic (can make their own food) Eubacteria More common type of bacteria Classified according to shape and how they respond to a process called Gram staining Some are heterotrophs and rely on others as their food source Others are parasites and get their nutrients by feeding on other organisms Some are saprotrophs and feed on dead organisms organic wastes More Eubacteria feeding habits Still others are autotrophs and make their own food. Example: cynobacteria are photosynthetic autotrophs Chemosynthetic autotrophs make food by the break down of inorganic compounds that contain nitrogen and sulfur Bacteria get a bad rap, but… Actually there are more PROS than CONS PROS: Nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in the roots of plants Many foods such as pickles, yogurt, sauerkraut, and Swiss cheese owe their distinctive odors and flavors to bacteria. Certain ones make antibiotics such as neomycin and erythromycin Probiotics live in the intestines and produce vitamins, enhance the absorption of nutrients and strengthen the immune system. On the other hand… Many do cause diseases Some form endospores which can cause botulism or tetanus Others cause Lyme disease, strep throat, and cavities in your teeth 11.5 Kingdom Protista Protists Contains so many organisms that don’t fit elsewhere. No such thing as a typical protist Microscopic or large, unicellular or multicellular Autotrophs or heterotrophs Are all alike in that they are EUKARYOTES! Protozoans – animal-like protists Single-celled One that has no definite shape is the amoeba Moves by pseudopods which are extensions of its cytoplasm Others move using cilia or flagella A paramecium moves using cilia Some cause diseases such as malaria Some have specialized parts such as the contractile vacuole which pump water our of the cell. If this did not take place, the cell would burst due to osmosis. Plant-like protists Many of these are autotrophs and contain chlorophyll and carry out photosynthesis. These protists are algae. Algae do not have roots, stems, leaves, or flowers like plants Because they have other pigments than chlorophyll, they may appear red, brown, or golden Algae are important food source for many animals Types of algae include euglenoids, golden algae, green algae, brown algae, and red algae. Diatoms have a glass-like outer shell. It forms diatomaceous earth when it dies. This is used as an abrasive in toothpastes and as a filtering agent for liquids Fungal-like protists Decompose dead organisms Includes slime molds, downy mildews, and water molds 11.6 Kingdom Fungi Kingdom Fungi Found everywhere there is moisture. Most are multi-celled, but a few are single-celled like yeasts. The roles of fungi include that of consumer because they do not contain chlorophyll and therefore cannot make their own food. Fungi feed by a process called extracellular digestion. They send out hyphae into their source of food. The hyphae secret enzymes that break down the food into small enough particles that can be absorbed into the fungi by diffusion. Fungal Facts Have cell walls made of chitin. Some are saprophytes which feed on dead organic matter. They are decomposers Some are parasites and cause ringworm and athlete’s foot in humans. Lichens which are found growing on rocks and trees are actually two organisms, a fungus and a green algae which live in a mutualistic relationship. Reproduction and locomotion Some fungi reproduce sexually, some asexually, and some both sexually AND asexually. Yeasts reproduce by budding. Most mushrooms reproduce sexually by forming spores called basidiospores. Bread molds produce asexual spores in specialized hypha called a sporangium. The “Good-guy” Fungi Can be harmful or beneficial Benefits: Some are edible (mushrooms) Yeasts make bread rise, juice ferment to alcohol Penicillium mold is used to make penicillin Others make cheeses “Bad-Guy Fungi” Cause plant diseases such as rusts and smuts Destroys large amounts of crops and timber each year Some fungal spores are fatal if ingested by humans. Kingdom Plantae Characteristics of Plants: Made of more than one cell Cells are eukaryotic Autotrophic – can make their own food by photosynthesis Also have cell walls made of cellulose 250 000 species exist today! Botanist –scientist who studies plants Two major divisions: Non-vascular plants Vascular plants 12.2 Non-vascular plants (bryophytes) 3 divisions: Bryophyta - mosses Hepatophyta - liverworts Antheocerophyta - hornworts Scan diagram of moss pg 201 Hepatophyta: less than 2 cm tall Antheocerophyta: hornworts – None of these have true leaves, nor roots. Have rhizoids that anchor them like roots The only way they receive water or nutrients is by osmosis or diffusion. Reproduction Reproduce by using spores that contain either the egg or the sperm cell Bryophytes undergo alternation of generations which is in two stages: First: gametophyte stage – haploid cells 2nd: sporophyte stage – diploid cells undergo meiosis to produce spores. 12.3 Vascular Plants Tissues that can transport materials throughout the plant. Two kinds of vascular tissue: Xylem: carries water and minerals UP to the stem and leaves. Phloem: carries food from the leaves to wherever it is needed Divided into 2 divisions according to method of reproduction. Seedless vascular plants Seedless vascular plants form spores and are found in warm, moist regions. Pterophyta: ferns – 10,000 species Produce spores in brown cases called sporangia found on the leaves or fronds Have thick underground stems called rhizomes Psilotopohyta: whisk ferns – no roots and no true leaves Lycophyta: club mosses – have true roots, stems, and leaves Sphenophyta: horsetails – only one genus still alive today Seed producing - Gymnosperms Produce seeds either in cones or in some “naked” form. Seed is not protected by a fruit Cycadophyta: cycads Ginkophyta: only one living species – Gingko liloba – bright yellow leaves Gnetophyta: woody vines, small shrubs, or turnip-like plants Coniferophyta: conifers Produce seeds in cones – needlike leaves Very important – provide building materials, paper, medicine Tallest trees are in this division – the redwoods Seed Producers - Angiosperms Flowering plants – anthophyta All have flowers, but some flowers are so small they are not noticeable. 240,000 species All have roots, stems, and leaves Seed produced in the flower and protected by a fruit Two groups: Monocots & Dicots Monocotyledons: Have one seed leaf Parallel veins Flower parts in groups of three Examples: corn, lilies, pineapple, and grasses Dicotyledons Have 2 seed leaves Veins branched or netted Flower parts in 4’s or 5’s 170 000 species Examples: roses, daisies, dogwoods, maple trees, shrubs, wildflowers, herbs, and many flowers grown around homes. Kingdom Animalia Characteristics of all animals Multicellular No cell wall, no chlorophyll Eukaryotic Heterotrophs – no photosynthesis! Other characteristics: Usually move around at some point in their life cycle Have specialized cells that serve special functions and can form tissues, organs, and in most animals organ systems. Classification According to structural similarities Evolutionary relationships Body plans Some are asymmetrical (no particular shape) Some are radially symmetrical (bodies arranged around a central point) ex. Starfish Other have radial symmetry (you can draw a line lengthwise down the animal’s body along only one plane to divide it into 2 equal halves. Body Plans Assymetrical Radial Symmetry Bilateral Symmetry Nine Main Phyla In order from least complex to most complex: Porifera, Cnideria, Platyhelminthes, Nematoda, Mollusca, Annelida, Arthropoda, Echinodermata, and Chordata. The first 8 make up the invertebrates or animals with no backbones, while Chordata is the only phyla of animals with backbones. They are also known as vertebrates. Classification of Humans Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata sub-phylum: vertebrata Class: Mammalia Order: Primate Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: sapiens Scientific Name: Homo sapiens 13.2 Invertebrates