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Microevolution & Macroevolution The changes of nature that shows us that some of Darwin’s hypotheses are correct – on a small scale, within species. CYC 2011 Could parallel evolution occur? If the evolution model is valid, wings have “evolved” four different times: in insects, in flying reptiles, in birds, and in bats. If the evolution model is valid, eyes have “evolved” at least three times independently. If something as complex as the eye has appeared several times, in the squid, in vertebrates, and in arthropods, it seems impossible that chance or randomness alone caused its origin. Life is complex! Life contains an organized structure that we refer to as DNA. Our complex systems are all, in the case of every known organism, reproduced and assembled on the basis of “instructions” built into the DNA molecular system. The DNA molecule not only has information required for the synthesis of the specific protein molecules needed by the cell, but also for its own replication. Therefore, reproduction and inheritance depend directly upon the DNA molecule, which is organized differently and specifically for each type of organism. DNA can only be replicated with the specific help of certain protein molecules, which, in turn, can only produce at the direction of DNA. Each depends on the other, and both must be present for replication to take place. DNA discoveries call the science of “evolution” completely into question. Probability . . . The probability of a complex system arising instantly by chance is calculated by modern scientist to occur successfully at the rate of 1:10 Microevolution: what is it? Microevolution is evolution on a small scale — within a single population. That means narrowing our focus to one branch of the tree of life. If you could zoom in on one branch of the tree of life scale — the insects, for example — you would see another phylogeny relating all the different insect lineages. If you continue to zoom in, selecting the branch representing beetles, you would see another phylogeny relating different beetle species. You could continue zooming in until you saw the relationships between beetle populations. Defining “Populations” For animals, it's fairly easy to decide what a population is. It is a group of organisms that interbreed with each other — that is, they all share a gene pool. So for our species of beetle, that might be a group of individuals that all live on a particular mountaintop and are potential mates for one another. Biologists who study evolution at this level define evolution as a change in gene frequency within a population. Detecting microevolutionary change Microevolution is defined as a change in gene frequency in a population and a population as a group of organisms that share a common gene pool — like all the individuals of one beetle species living on a particular mountaintop. Imagine that you go to the mountaintop this year, sample these beetles, and determine that 80% of the genes in the population are for green coloration and 20% of them are for brown coloration. You go back the next year, repeat the procedure, and find a new ratio: 60% green genes to 40% brown genes. http://evolution.berkeley.edu Mechanisms of microevolution MUTATION; MIGRATION; GENETIC DRIFT; Imagine that you observe an increase in the frequency of brown coloration genes and a decrease in the frequency of green coloration genes in a beetle population. Any combination of the mechanisms of microevolution might be responsible for the pattern, and part of the scientist's job is to figure out which of these mechanisms caused the change. Mutation Some "green genes" randomly mutated to "brown genes" (although since any particular mutation is rare, this process alone cannot account for a big change in allele frequency over one generation). Migration Some beetles with brown genes immigrated from another population, or some beetles carrying green genes emigrated. Genetic drift When the beetles reproduced, just by random luck more brown genes than green genes ended up in the offspring. In the diagram at right, brown genes occur slightly more frequently in the offspring (29%) than in the parent generation (25%). Natural Selection Beetles with brown genes escaped predation and survived to reproduce more frequently than beetles with green genes, so that more brown genes got into the next generation. What does the Bible say about Microevolution? The Bible says nothing about microevolution. This is a scientific process which is welldocumented within scientific research. Microevolution, or “evolution” within a species does not contradict the Bible in any way. Biblical scholars sometimes call microevolution “Variation” which is observable, scientific and Biblical. Microevolution is supported by biologic evidence There are many examples of microevolution happening within nature. Here are a few: Ancient Penguin DNA Reveals Microevolution on Ice: Using perfectly preserved, ancient DNA, scientists have demonstrated microevolution in a single species over a span of some 6,000 years. The researchers examined well-preserved bones of Adélie penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) found in Antarctica and compared them to the birds' living descendants. The scientists discovered small changes in gene frequency, the relative percentage of an allele compared to nearby genes. Alleles are different forms of a gene (the code for blue or brown eyes, for example) that are inherited from each parent and that occupy a given space on a chromosome. Ancient Penguin DNA Reveals Microevolution on Ice: The evolutionary changes in the penguin genes have several possible causes. The most likely may be a recurring natural event in the birds' environment—the mega-icebergs that intermittently alter the ways the penguins migrate and breed. Biology professor David Lambert said that while many people might assume that natural selection propels evolution, "virtually all biologists define evolution as changes in gene frequencies over time." The size of the sparrow: House sparrows were introduced to North America in 1852. Since that time, the sparrows have “evolved” different characteristics in different locations. Sparrow populations in the north are larger-bodied than sparrow populations in the south. This divergence in populations is probably at least partly a result of natural selection: larger-bodied birds can often survive lower temperatures than smaller-bodied birds can. Colder weather in the north probably selects for larger-bodied birds. As this map shows, sparrows in colder places are now generally larger than sparrows in warmer locales. Resistance . . . Science has documented many examples of the evolution of resistance — of pests to pesticides, weeds to herbicides, and pathogens to medicines — all of which are cases of microevolution by natural selection. In the case of antibiotic resistance, for example, a bacterial strain's huge population size and short generation time mean that natural selection acts quickly. In each bacterial generation, new mutations and gene combinations are generated. If any of these confer resistance to a drug to which the bacteria are exposed, natural selection will favor those gene versions. Over the course of many bacterial generations (a small fraction of a single human lifetime), the bacteria adapt to our defenses, evolving right out from under our attempts to rid ourselves of them. A few more examples of microevolution This general scenario has played out many, many times. Just a few examples include: mosquitoes evolving resistance to DDT whiteflies evolving resistance to pesticides gonorrheal bacteria strains evolving resistance to penicillin HIV strains evolving resistance to antiviral medicines Macroevolution: What your science teacher calls “Evolution.” Macroevolution generally refers to evolution above the species level. So instead of focusing on an individual beetle species, a macroevolutionary lens might require that we zoom out on the tree of life, to assess the diversity of the entire beetle clade and its position on the tree. Evolution on a large scale Macroevolution encompasses the grandest trends and transformations in evolution, such as the origin of mammals and the radiation of flowering plants. Macroevolutionary patterns are generally what we see when we look at the large-scale history of life. It is not necessarily easy to "see" macroevolutionary history; there are no firsthand accounts to be read. Instead, evolutionists reconstruct the history of life using all available evidence they have found in geology, fossils, and living organisms. What do evolutionist scientists say? Once we've figured out what evolutionary events have taken place, we try to figure out how they happened. Just as in microevolution, basic evolutionary mechanisms like mutation, migration, genetic drift, and natural selection are at work and can help explain many large-scale patterns in the history of life. These scientists claim that basic evolutionary mechanisms — mutation, migration, genetic drift, and natural selection — can produce major evolutionary change if given enough time. Patterns in macroevolution Stasis: Many lineages on the tree of life exhibit stasis, which just means that they don't change much for a long time, as shown in the figure to the right. In fact, some lineages have changed so little for such a long time that they are often called living fossils. Coelacanths comprise a fish lineage that branched off of the tree near the base of the vertebrate clade. Until 1938, scientists thought the coelacanths went extinct 80 million years ago. But in 1938, scientists discovered a living coelacanth from a population in the Indian Ocean that looked very similar to its fossil ancestors. Hence, the coelacanth lineage exhibits about 80 million years’ worth of morphological stasis. Patterns in macroevolution Character change: Evolutions claim that lineages can change quickly or slowly. Character change can happen in a single direction, such as evolving additional segments, or it can reverse itself by gaining and then losing segments. Changes can occur within a single lineage or across several lineages. In the figure to the right, lineage A changes rapidly but in no particular direction. Lineage B shows slower, directional change. Trilobites, animals in the same clade as modern insects and crustaceans, are believed to have lived over 300 million years ago. As shown below, their fossil record suggests that several lineages underwent similar increases in segment number over the course of millions of years. Patterns in macroevolution Lineage-splitting (or speciation): Patterns of lineage-splitting can be identified by constructing and examining a phylogeny. The phylogeny might reveal that a particular lineage has undergone unusually frequent lineage-splitting, generating a "bushy" tuft of branches on the tree (Clade A, below). It might reveal that a lineage has an unusually low rate of lineagesplitting, represented by a long branch with very few twigs coming off (Clade B, below). Or it might reveal that several lineages experienced a burst of lineage-splitting at the same time (Clade C, below). Patterns in macroevolution Extinction: Extinction is extremely important in the history of life. It can be a frequent or rare event within a lineage, or it can occur simultaneously across many lineages (mass extinction). Every lineage has some chance of becoming extinct, and overwhelmingly, species have ended up in the losing slots on this roulette wheel: over 99% of the species that have ever lived on Earth have gone extinct. In this diagram, a mass extinction cuts short the lifetimes of many species, and only three survive. http://evolution.berkeley.edu Is evolution true? We must examine evolution from both a Biblical perspective and a scientific perspective. Evolution is sometimes referred to as “Darwinism” because the work of Charles Darwin in The Origin of the Species is the work that sparked the concept . Darwin was open to many new and different ideas in his day, and many believe would be appalled at the way that “evolutionists” who believe in a theory through which they filter scientific data refuse to consider the possibility that scientific evidence may be interpreted differently. Darwin did not answer the “question” Although many would like to say he did, Darwin did not identify the “origin” of anything. Darwin focused on the processes he observed in science. He did not determine who or what caused things to be. Today, most evolutionists believe that the earth cooled and formed into rock, which was rained upon for millions of years, creating a “soup” of chemicals. The chemicals came together and formed the first living creatures, which have evolved into all the species we see today. Where did we come from? What does the Bible say? Scientists and philosophers, theologians and common people have been trying to answer this question throughout time. There are several arguments for the existence of God, besides the argument “The Bible says so.” These arguments are referred in the philosophy of religion as “cosmological” and “teleological” . These arguments search for the “First Cause” of the universe. Intelligent Design The design model is a theory of origins asserting that all life forms were designed to experience only limited genetic variations (microevolution) in order to adapt to and survive the stresses caused by environmental changes. Darrel Kautz, The Origin of Living Things There is a creator The Bible says there is a creator, who designed the earth. We will call God the “First Cause.” In Genesis we know that God created our world and all the living things in the world Since the Bible is not a science book, it does not address changes within species; only that an intelligent, loving creator designed them all. If this is true, and I believe it is, we become more involved with moral truth and responsibility, than with random biological changes of species. Evolutionary theories Gradualism: Organisms change at a VERY slow pace which moves from micro evolutionary changes to the emergence of new life forms. Punctuated Equilibria: Organisms remain relatively static for long periods of time, when sudden environmental pressures cause sudden punctuations, or the bursting forth of new life forms. Theistic Evolution: Where God is the “First cause” but then macroevolutionary theory is his vehicle for creation. Mutation: The method whereby one species transitions into a new species. Mutation in macroevolution Mutation is the most important component in macroevolution; this is the mechanism to produce the required upward progress in complexity. There are serious problems with mutations. Mutations are random; not directed Mutations are rare. Good mutations are very, very rare. The net effect of all mutations is harmful Mutations affect and are affected by many genes Probability . . . Scientists have proven that a organism composed of only 100 integrated parts, with each part fulfilling a unique function, would have the probability of a successful chance linkage of only 1:10 158th power (that’s 10 with 150 zeros!) NASA researchers found that the simplest type of living protein molecule was made of a chain of at least 400 linked amino acids . . . The probability of a DNA molecule linking, with its thousands of functioning enzymes, is incredibly improbable – 41000 (which equals 10600) Intelligent Design’s Progressive Model Stages Genesis Event Verses Science 1-2 Creation of the space-time universe 1-5 Big Bang of cosmology (light bursts forth from darkness) 2-3 - Earth formed - Water begins to condense - Global sea emerges - Atmosphere created (expanses) 6-8 -Volcanic activity ends -Atmosphere forms over the sea (troposphere – greenhouse effect) Intelligent Design’s Progressive Model Stages Genesis Event Verses Science 3-4 - Dry land created - Earth-moon system created - Atmosphere becomes transparent - Single-celled plant life created by now 4, 9-10 -Origin of double planet system (theory of the origin of the moon from the earth who create a basin in the earth for water to gather to one side) Intelligent Design’s Progressive Model Stages Genesis Event Verses Science 4-5 -Creation of sea animals (multicellular to amphibians/rep tiles/winged animals) -Creation of Great reptiles (i.e. dinosaurs) 14-19 Cambrian explosion/age of fish (array of multicellular animals having the body plans of virtually all creatures that now swim, fly or crawl throughout the world.) Intelligent Design’s Progressive Model Stages Genesis Event Verses Science 5-6 -Creation of land animals (domesticated livestock, nondomesticatedwild ) -Creation of mammals/hum an life 24-27 -Age of amphibians/rep tiles -Age of mammals/hum anity Intelligent Design’s Young Earth Model The young earth model views creation from a literal 6 day, 24 hr. creation. The universe is created with the appearance of age. Adam, for example, was not created as a baby, but as a full-grown man with the appearance of age. The same can be said for the creation of wine at Cana, Jesus created wine from water; a process that normally takes time; the wine had an appearance of age, despite having been created just moments prior. Supernatural events are not subject to the physical world. The creation of the universe is a supernatural event. Matter, space and time exploded into existence at God’s creation of the universe. Young Earth Model Citation Bible Event Genesis 1:1-2 (Preparation) In the beginning God created Creation of matter, the heavens and the earth. The space, and time. earth was without form, and void; and darkness was on the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God was hovering over the face of the waters. BIG BANG Genesis 1:3-5 (Day 1) Then God said “Let there be Creation of light and light” and there was light. And its physical God saw the light, that it was properties. good; and God divided the light from the darkness. God called the light Day, and the darkness He called Night. So the evening and the morning were the first day. Young Earth Model Citation Bible Event Genesis 1:6-8 (Day 2) Then God said “Let there be a firmament in the midst of the waters and let it divide the waters from the waters. Thus God made the firmament, and divided the waters which were under the firmament from the waters which were above the firmament; and it was so. And God called the firmament Heaven. So the evening and morning were the second day. Condensation of matter to form the earth; Creation of the watery planet Genesis 1:913(Day 3) Then God said “Let the waters under the heavens be gathered together into one place and let the dry land appear;” and it was so. And God called the dry land Earth, and the gathering together of the waters he called the seas. And God saw that it was good. Then God said, “let the earth bring forth grass, the herb that yields seed, and the fruit tree that yields fruit according to its kind, whose seed is in itself, on the earth;” and it was so. . . . And God saw that it was good. So the evening and the morning were the third day. The appearance of land, and separation from water. Plants are created with genetic variety. Young Earth Model Citation Bible Event Genesis 1:1419 (Day 4) Then God said, “Let there be lights in the firmament of the heavens to divide the day from the night; and let them be for signs and seasons, for days and years; and let them be for lights in the firmament of the heavens to give light on earth.” and it was so. Then God made two great lights; the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light to rule the night. He made the starts also. . . . And God saw that it was good. SO the evening and the morning were the fourth day. The matter in the universe is organized and turned on. The light and light sources are created; the sun, moon, and stars. Genesis 1:2024 (Day 5) Then God said, “Let the waters abound with an abundance of living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the face of the firmament of the heavens.” So God created great sea creatures and every living thing that moves, with which the waters abounded, according to their kind, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw it was good. And God blessed them, saying “Be fruitful and multiply, and fill the waters in the seas, and let birds multiply on the earth. So evening and the morning were the 5th day. All varieties of birds, sea animals are crated with genetic variety and limitations (kind). Citation Genesis 1:25-31 (Day 6) Bible Event Then God said, “Let the earth bring forth the living creature according to its kind: cattle and creeping things and beast of the earth, each according to its kind;” and it was so. And God made [them]. . . . And God saw that it was good. Then God said, “Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness; let them have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over the cattle, over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth. So God created man in His own image; in the image of God He created him; male and female He created them. Then God blessed them and God said to them, “Be fruitful and multiply; fill the earth and subdue it; have dominion over the fish of the sea, over the birds of the air, and over every living thing that moves on the earth.” And god said, “See I have given you every herb that yields seed which is on the face of all the earth, and every tree whose fruit yields seed to you it shall be for food. Also, to every beast of the earth, to every bird of the air, and to everything that creeps on the earth, in which there is life, I have given every green herb for food;” and it was so. Then God saw everything that He had made, and indeed it was very good. So the evening ad the morning were the sixth day. Land animals and insects with genetic variety and kind are created. Man is created in the image of God (the First Cause) Spotted in 1959 and photographed by a Turkish airforce pilot. Noah’s Ark? Noah’s Ark & the Flood The deposits of coal and oil under the Earth’s surface show that living matter was covered by sedimentary deposits – reasonably during the great flood. Oil and coal are the remains of living matter that has died. Fossils occur only if living matter is immediately buried. The large number of fossils are the result of a catastrophic event: the flood of Noah’s day. Sea life fossils are on the top of Mount Everest, in addition to the rest of the mountain chains. http://www.truthnet.org