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Chapter 12 The Cell Cycle PowerPoint Lectures for Biology, Seventh Edition Neil Campbell and Jane Reece Lectures by Chris Romero Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Overview: The Key Roles of Cell Division • The ability of organisms to reproduce best distinguishes living things from non-living matter • The continuity of life is based upon the reproduction of cells, or cell division • Cell division is integral part of cell cycle Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Types of cell division • Prokaryotes (no nucleus: bacteria – simple life forms) – • Binary fission Eukaryotes (contain a nucleus) – – Mitosis: • Growth, development & repair • Asexual reproduction (yields genetically identical cells) • Occurs in somatic (body) cells Meiosis: • Sexual reproduction (yields genetically different cells with half the # of chromosomes) • Occurs in specific reproductive cells • Yields gametes (e.g., eggs & sperm) or spores Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Eukaryotic cell division consists of: – Mitosis, the division of the nucleus – Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Concept 12.1: Mitotic cell division results in genetically identical daughter cells • Cells duplicate their genetic material before they divide, ensuring that each daughter cell receives an exact copy of the genetic material, DNA • A dividing cell duplicates its DNA, allocates the two copies to opposite ends of the cell, and only then splits into daughter cells Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cellular Organization of the Genetic Material • A cell’s endowment of DNA (its genetic information) is called its genome • DNA molecules* in a cell are packaged into chromosomes *Prokaryotescircular DNA Eukaryoteslinear DNA Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • Every eukaryotic species has a characteristic number of chromosomes in each cell nucleus • Somatic (non-reproductive) cells (normally) have two sets of chromosomes • Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and eggs) (and spores) have half as many chromosomes as somatic cells • Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein that condenses during cell division Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings DNA associates with special proteins to form more stable structure called chromosomes (different proteins in prokaryotes and eukaryotes, so chromosomes built different) Chromosomes are found inside nucleus in eukaryotes Human - 46 chromosomes, 23 pairs (1 set of 23 from egg, 1 set of 23 from sperm) Each chromosome contains many genes Gene is a segment of DNA that is responsible for controlling a trait (e.g., coding for a specific protein) Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human female karyotype Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Human male karyotype Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Phases of the Cell Cycle • The cell cycle consists of – Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) – Interphase (cell growth and copying of chromosomes in preparation for cell division) • Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can be divided into subphases: – G1 phase (“first gap”) – S phase (“synthesis”) – G2 phase (“second gap”) Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-5 INTERPHASE G1 S (DNA synthesis) G2 Distribution of Chromosomes During Cell Division • In preparation for cell division, DNA is replicated and the chromosomes condense • Each duplicated chromosome has two sister chromatids, which separate during cell division • The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the duplicated chromosome, where the two chromatids are most closely attached Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-4 0.5 µm Chromosome duplication (including DNA synthesis) Centromere Sister chromatids Separation of sister chromatids Centromeres Sister chromatids • Mitosis is conventionally divided into five phases: – Prophase – Prometaphase – Metaphase – Anaphase – Telophase • Cytokinesis is well underway by late telophase Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 1. Prophase - Chromatin condenses, this causes the chromosomes to begin to become visible - Centrosomes separate, moving to opposite ends of the nucleus - The centrosomes start to form a framework used to separate the two sister chromatids called the mitotic spindle, that is made of microtubules - Nucleolus disappears Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 2. Prometaphase - Nuclear envelope fragments - Chromosomes become more condensed - A kinetochore is formed at the centromere, the point where the sister chromatids are attached - Microtubules attach at the kinetochores Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 3. Metaphase - Chromosomes align on an axis called the metaphase plate - Note: the spindle consists of microtubules, one attached to each chromosome Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 4. Anaphase - Each centromere splits making two chromatids free - Each chromatid moves toward a pole - Cell begins to elongate, caused by microtubules not associated with the kinetochore Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings 5. Telophase • Formation of nuclear membrane and nucleolus • Short and thick chromosomes begin to elongate to form long and thin chromatin • Formation of the cleavage furrow - a shallow groove in the cell near the old metaphase plate • Cytokinesis = division of the cytoplasm Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Mitosis in an onion root Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Mitotic Spindle: A Closer Look • The mitotic spindle is an apparatus of microtubules that controls chromosome movement during mitosis • Assembly of spindle microtubules begins in the centrosome, the microtubule organizing center • The centrosome replicates, forming two centrosomes that migrate to opposite ends of the cell, as spindle microtubules grow out from them • An aster (a radial array of short microtubules) extends from each centrosome Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings • The spindle includes the centrosomes, the spindle microtubules, and the asters • Some spindle microtubules attach to the kinetochores of chromosomes and move the chromosomes to the metaphase plate Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-7 Aster Microtubules Sister chromatids Chromosomes Centrosome Metaphase plate Kinetochores Overlapping nonkinetochore microtubules Centrosome 1 µm Kinetochore microtubules 0.5 µm • In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and move along the kinetochore microtubules toward opposite ends of the cell • The microtubules shorten by depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-8b Chromosome movement Microtubule Motor protein Chromosome Kinetochore Tubulin subunits • Nonkinetochore microtubules from opposite poles overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell • In telophase, genetically identical daughter nuclei form at opposite ends of the cell Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Cytokinesis: A Closer Look • In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a process known as cleavage, forming a cleavage furrow • In plant cells, a cell plate forms during cytokinesis Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-9a 100 µm Cleavage furrow Contractile ring of microfilaments Daughter cells Cleavage of an animal cell (SEM) Mitosis Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-9b Vesicles forming cell plate Wall of parent cell Cell plate 1 µm New cell wall Daughter cells Cell plate formation in a plant cell (TEM) LE 12-10 Nucleus Nucleolus Chromatin condensing Prophase. The chromatin is condensing. The nucleolus is beginning to disappear. Although not yet visible in the micrograph, the mitotic spindle is starting to form. Chromosomes Prometaphase. We now see discrete chromosomes; each consists of two identical sister chromatids. Later in prometaphase, the nuclear envelope will fragment. Cell plate Metaphase. The spindle is complete, and the chromosomes, attached to microtubules at their kinetochores, are all at the metaphase plate. Anaphase. The chromatids of each chromosome have separated, and the daughter chromosomes are moving to the ends of the cell as their kinetochore microtubules shorten. 10 µm Telophase. Daughter nuclei are forming. Meanwhile, cytokinesis has started: The cell plate, which will divide the cytoplasm in two, is growing toward the perimeter of the parent cell. Binary Fission • Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea) reproduce by a type of cell division called binary fission • In binary fission, the chromosome replicates (beginning at the origin of replication), and the two daughter chromosomes actively move apart Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-11_1 Cell wall Origin of replication Plasma membrane E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Two copies of origin Bacterial chromosome LE 12-11_2 Cell wall Origin of replication Plasma membrane E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Replication continues. One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Bacterial chromosome Two copies of origin Origin Origin LE 12-11_3 Cell wall Origin of replication E. coli cell Chromosome replication begins. Soon thereafter, one copy of the origin moves rapidly toward the other end of the cell. Replication continues. One copy of the origin is now at each end of the cell. Replication finishes. The plasma membrane grows inward, and new cell wall is deposited. Two daughter cells result. Plasma membrane Bacterial chromosome Two copies of origin Origin Origin The Evolution of Mitosis • Since prokaryotes evolved before eukaryotes, mitosis probably evolved from binary fission • Certain protists exhibit types of cell division that seem intermediate between binary fission and mitosis Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-12 Bacterial chromosome Prokaryotes Chromosomes Microtubules Intact nuclear envelope Dinoflagellates Kinetochore microtubules Intact nuclear envelope Diatoms Kinetochore microtubules Centrosome Fragments of nuclear envelope Most eukaryotes Concept 12.3: The cell cycle is regulated by a molecular control system • The frequency of cell division varies with the type of cell and with cell “happiness” • These cell cycle differences result from regulation at the molecular level • The cell cycle appears to be driven by specific chemical signals present in the cytoplasm • The levels of these chemical signals are influenced by biotic & abiotic factors Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings The Cell Cycle Control System • The sequential events of the cell cycle are directed by a distinct cell cycle control system, which is similar to a clock • The clock has specific checkpoints where the cell cycle stops until a go-ahead signal is received • For many cells, the G1 checkpoint seems to be the most important one Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-14 G1 checkpoint Control system G1 M M checkpoint G2 checkpoint G2 S LE 12-15 G0 G1 checkpoint G1 If a cell receives a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, the cell continues on in the cell cycle. G1 If a cell does not receive a go-ahead signal at the G1 checkpoint, the cell exits the cell cycle and goes into G0, a nondividing state. LE 12-16b Cdk Degraded cyclin G2 Cdk checkpoint Cyclin is degraded MPF Cyclin Molecular mechanisms that help regulate the cell cycle Stop and Go Signs: Internal and External Signals at the Checkpoints • An example of an internal signal is that kinetochores not attached to spindle microtubules send a molecular signal that delays anaphase • Some external signals are growth factors, proteins released by certain cells that stimulate other cells to divide • For example, platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) stimulates the division of human fibroblast cells in culture Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-17 Scalpels Petri plate Without PDGF With PDGF Without PDGF With PDGF 10 mm • Another example of external signals is densitydependent inhibition, in which crowded cells stop dividing • Most animal cells also exhibit anchorage dependence, in which they must be attached to a substratum in order to divide Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-18a Cells anchor to dish surface and divide (anchorage dependence). When cells have formed a complete single layer, they stop dividing (density-dependent inhibition). If some cells are scraped away, the remaining cells divide to fill the gap and then stop (density-dependent inhibition). Normal mammalian cells 25 µm • Cancer cells exhibit neither density-dependent inhibition nor anchorage dependence Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings LE 12-18b Cancer cells do not exhibit anchorage dependence or density-dependent inhibition. 25 µm Cancer cells Loss of Cell Cycle Controls in Cancer Cells • Cancer cells do not respond normally to the body’s control mechanisms • Cancer cells form tumors, masses of abnormal cells within otherwise normal tissue • If abnormal cells remain at the original site, the lump is called a benign tumor • Malignant tumors invade surrounding tissues and can metastasize, exporting cancer cells to other parts of the body, where they may form secondary tumors Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings