Download Problems and Opportunities for Machine Learning in Drug Discovery

Problems and Opportunities
for Machine Learning
in Drug Discovery
(Can you find lessons for Systems Biology?)
George S. Cowan, Ph.D.
Computer Aided Drug Discovery
Pfizer Global Research and Development, Ann Arbor Labs
CSSB, Rovereto, Italy
19 April 2004
Working as a Computer Scientist in a
Life Sciences field requires an array of
supporting scientists
Thanks to:
Cheminformatics
Mentors and Colleagues:
John Blankley
Alain Calvet
David Moreland
Academic:
Peter Willett
Robert Pearlman
Project
Colleagues:
David Wild
Kjell Johnson
Risk Takers:
Eric Gifford
Mark Snow
Christine Humblet
Mike Rafferty
Drug Discovery and Development
Discern unmet medical need
Discover mechanism of action of disease
Identify target protein
Screen known compounds against target
Synthesize promising leads
Find 1-2 potential drugs
Toxicity, ADME
Clinical Trials
Lock and Key Model
Virtual HTS Screening
Virtual Screening Definition
• estimate some biological behavior of new compounds
• identify characteristics of compounds related to that
biological behavior
• only use some computer representation of the compounds
HTS Virtual Screening is Not QSAR/QSPR
• Based on large amounts of easy to measure observations
• Uses early stage data from multiple chemical series
(no X-ray Crystallography)
• Observations are not refined
(Percent Inhibition at a single concentration)
• Looking for research direction, not best activity
Promise of Data Mining
Data Mining
•
•
•
•
Works with large sets of data
Efficient Processing
Finds non-intuitive information
Methods do not depend on the Domain (Marketing, Fraud
detection, Chemistry, …)
Alternative Data Mining Approaches
•
•
•
•
•
Regression - Linear or Non-Linear - PLS
Principal Components
Association Rules
Clustering Approach - Unsupervised - Concept Formation
Classification Approach - Supervised
Overview (1)
Virtual Screening Challenges to
Machine Learning
• No single computer representation captures all the
important information about a molecule
• The candidate features for representing molecules are
highly correlated
• Features are entangled
– Multiple binding modes use different combinations of features
– Multiple chemical series / scaffolds use the same binding mode
– Evidence that some ligands take on multiple conformations when
binding to a target
– Any 4 out of 5 important features may be sufficient
More Challenges to
Machine Learning
•
•
•
•
•
•
Overview (2)
Training data and validation data are not representative
Measurements of activity are inherently noisy
Activity is a rare event; target populations are unbalanced
Classification requires choosing cutoffs for activity
There is no good measure for a successful prediction
Many data mining methods characterize activity in ways
that are meaningless to a chemist
• Data mining results must be reversible to assist a chemist
in inventing new molecules that will be active
(inverse QSAR)
Deep Challenges to
Machine Learning
Overview (3)
• No free lunch theorem
• Science is different from marketing
No Single Computer Representation
captures all the important information
How do we characterize the electronic “face” that
the molecule presents to the protein?
– Grid of surface or surrounding points with field calculations
– Conformational flexibility
– 3-D relationships of pharmacophores
• Complementary volumes and surfaces
• Complementary charges
• Complementary hydrogen bonding atoms
• Similar Hydrophbicity/Hydrophilicity
– Connectivity: Bonding between Atoms (2-D)
• pharmacophore info is implicitly present to some extent
• not biased toward any particular conformation
– Presence of molecular fragments (fingerprints)
– Other: Linear (SLN, SMILES)? Free-tree?
Pharmacophores
Representation of Chemical
Structures (2D)
Aspirin
BCI Chemical Descriptors
• Descriptors are binary and represent
- augmented atoms
- atom pairs
- atom sequences
- ring compositions
Chiral
F
O
O
N
NH
OH
Ca
2+
OH
OH
We don’t have the right descriptors, but we
have thousands that are easy to compute
• Thousands of molecular fragments
• Hundreds of calculated quasi-physical
properties
• Hundreds of structural connectivity indicators
Much of this information is
redundant
Feature Interaction and
Multiple Configurations for Activity
Require Disjunctive Models
• Multiple binding modes where different combinations
of features contribute to the activity
(including non-competitive ligands)
• Multiple chemical series / scaffolds use the same
binding mode
• Any 3 out of 4 important features may be sufficient
• Evidence that some targets require multiple
conformations from a ligand in order to bind
Non-competitive Binding
Non-competitive Binding
Unbalanced target populations
(activity is a rare event)
• About 1% of drug-like molecules have interesting activity
• Most of our experience in classification methods is with
roughly balanced classes
• Predictive methods are most accurate where they have the most
data (interpolation), but where we need the most accuracy is
with the extremely active compounds (extrapolation)
Warning: Your data may look balanced
• True population of interest:
– new and different compounds
• Unrepresentative HTS training data:
– What chemists made in the past
• Unrepresentative follow-up compounds for validation:
– What chemists intuition led them to submit to testing
Populations
All Drugs
Possible with
Current
Technology
Next
next
Library
Tested
Cipsline, Anti-infectives
2
Score HIV
1
0
-1
-2
-3
0
1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000
Our models are accurate on the
compounds made by our labs
Validation Statistics Depend on
Prevalence of the Actives
Count
Column %
Row %
Accuracy = 0.792
Predicted Class
Act
Predictive Value = 0.936
Not_Act
Actual Class
Recall = 0.703
617
Act
Not_Act
261
93.63
32.75
70.27
29.73
42
536
6.37
67.25
7.27
92.73
659
797
878
Sensitivity = 0.703
Specificity = 0.927
578
Kappa
0.592
1456
Std Err
0.0200
1 - Exp
Kappa = ¾¾¾¾¾
Obs - Exp
Redm an, C. E. “Screening Compounds for
Clinically Act ive Drugs”, in Statis tics for the
Pharm aceut ical Industry, 36, 19-42, 198 1
1% Prevalence Validation Statistics
Actual Class
Count
Column %
Row %
Act
Not_Act
Accuracy = 0.925
Predicted Class
Not_Act
Predictive Value = 0.089
Recall = 0.703
703
297
Sensitivity = 0.703
8.90
0.32
70.27
29.73
7270
92,730
91.10
99.68
7.27
92.73
7900
92,100
Act
1000
Specificity = 0.927
Kappa = 0.147
99,000
100,000
NOTICE THAT
Sensitivity and Specificity
are equal to the previous slide
but predictive value is much less
Choosing cutoffs for activity and
cutoffs for compounds to pursue
• Overlapping ranges of Inactive and Active
• Cost of missing an active
vs. cost of pursuing an inactive
Ideal vs. Actual HTS Observations
13
12
11
T 10
h
9
e
o
8
r
7
e
t
6
i
c
5
a
4
l
3
2
1
0
13
12
11
10
O
9
b
8
s
e
7
r
v
6
e
5
d
4
3
2
1
0
-125
-105
-85
-65
-45
-25
-5
15
Percent Inhibition
35
55
75
95
115
135
ROC Curves
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
sensitivity
0.6
Cost
1/Ratio
0.5
IsoCost1
IsoCost2
0.4
IsoCost3
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
False Positive Rate
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1
Virtual Screening
# of active retrieved vs # of compounds tested
140
140
120
120
100
100
80
80
60
60
40
40
20
20
0
0
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
1
10
100
# tested
# tested
Upper Ref
# of active retrieved
Random
1000
10000
We use the log-linear graph to compare
methods at different follow-up levels
See how 3 different methods perform
at selecting 5, 50, or 500 compounds to test
130
110
100
80
RP
60
SOM
40
LVQ
20
Reference
0
2
20
200
2000
# of compounds screened
20000
Random
Noise in measurement of activity
• Suppose 1% active and 1% error, then our predicted
actives are 50% false positives
• This is out of the range of data-mining methods
(but see “Identifying Mislabeled Training Data”, Brodley & Friedl, JAIR,
1999)
• Luckily, the error in measuring inactives is dampened
• Methods can take advantage of the accuracy in
inactive information in order to characterize actives
• On the other hand, inactives have nothing in
common, except that they are the other 99%
Mysterious Accuracy
OR
Neural Networks are great, but
what are they telling me?
We have a decision to make about data mining goals:
• Do we try to:
Outperform the chemist or engage the chemist
We need to assist a chemist in inventing new molecules
that will be active (inverse QSAR)
We need to characterize activity in ways that are meaningful
to a chemist
No Free Lunch Theorem
• Proteins recognize molecules
• Proteins compute a recognition function over the set
of molecules
• Proteins have a very general architecture
• Proteins can recognize very complex or very simple
characteristics of molecules
• Proteins can compute any recognition function(?)
• No single data-mining/machine-learning method
can outperform all others on arbitrary functions
• Therefore every new target protein requires its own
modeling method
• “Cheap Brunch Hypothesis”:
Maybe proteins have a bias
Science, Not Marketing
• We are looking for hypotheses that are worth
the effort of experimental validation
(not e-marketing opportunities)
• Data-mining rules and models need to be in the
form of a hypothesis comparable to the
chemist’s hypotheses
• Chemists need tools that help them design
experiments to validate or invalidate these
competing hypotheses
• HTS is an experiment in need of a design
Conclusion
• Machine-learning tools provide an
opportunity for processing the new
quantities of data that a chemist is seeing
• The naïve data-mining expert has a lot to
learn about chemical information
• The naïve chemist has a lot to learn about
data-mining for information
If there are so many problems
why are we having so much
fun?
Maybe we’ve stumbled into the
cheap brunch