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History ­ Article ­ Bismarck, Otto von
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Bismarck, Otto von
One of Germany's most famous statesman, Otto von Bismarck was responsible for the unification of Germany by
the creation of the Second German Empire in 1871. During his tenure as chancellor of the Reich he waged a
cultural war (Kulturkampf) against Catholicism, opposed the rise of socialism, instituted state­sponsored social
insurance, and protected Germany diplomatically through the Triple Alliance.
Otto von Bismarck was born on April 1, 1815, to Ferdinand Bismarck, a typical estate owner in Pomerania, and
Wilhelmine Mencken, whose lineage included bureaucrats and professors. His mother was educated in the
thinking of the English Utilitarians, French Positivists, and German liberalism. On her insistence, the family
moved to Berlin, where he attended a gymnasium. He studied law at the University of Göttingen, Germany's seat of liberalism, and
subsequently at Berlin. Not accepted for a position in the foreign ministry, he began a civil service career in the judiciary. His lifestyle
was characterized by laziness, drinking, and atheism, his body afflicted by a number of diseases, and his personality probably
neurotic. Developing a contemptuous attitude toward the bureaucracy, he left to manage the family estates from 1838 to 1847. In the
process of reforming his life, by 1847 he had abandoned his skepticism, adopting Christian Pietism, which stressed subjective
religious experience, acquired a sense of mission, married Johanna von Puttkamer, and entered politics.
His opportunity to enter politics came when the king, Frederick William IV, called for a meeting of the Prussian Diet to consider new
taxes. Here he gained a reputation for himself as a staunch defender of conservatism against the liberal majority. During the
Revolution of 1848 he helped plan its defeat. In 1851 he was rewarded with an appointment to the prestigious position of Prussian
representative to the Diet of the German Confederation, where he obstructed Austria. Subsequently, he was appointed to a series of
diplomatic posts at Vienna in 1854, at St. Petersburg in 1859, and briefly at Paris in 1861.
In 1862 the new king, William I, faced a constitutional crisis over budgetary increases to pay for the expansion of the army and the
increase of the length of compulsory service from two to three years. Since the Prussian parliament refused to support this policy, the
king needed a strong minister­president who would stand up to the opposition. Believing that he was the right man for the job,
Bismarck wrote to the minister of war, Albrecht von Roon, who invited him to come to Berlin and meet with the king. Received in
audience with the despairing king, Bismarck offered to lead the fight against Parliament. According to Bismarck, the king appointed
him "not as a constitutional minister in the usual sense of the word but as the servant of Your Majesty." Yet, the king was
unenthusiastic about his choice of this wild, witty, and notoriously reactionary Junker, but felt that he had no alternative than "mad
Bismarck" to teach the democratic opposition not to challenge the king's desires concerning his army. The new minister­president
continued to run the government, collected taxes, and expanded the army against the will of Parliament, which continued to refuse to
pass a budget. One of the most enduring images of Bismarck as the "blood and iron" minister who favored war over parliamentary
speeches was created in 1863, not from a speech given in the Parliament, but from remarks made in a small budget committee.
Bismarck's character as a diplomat and his achievements are not easy to explain. He was impatient, arrogant, and inclined to bluff.
Later in life, through his memoirs, speeches, and conversations he explained that he had foreseen and planned his successes. In
reality he was a master at seizing opportunities as they came. In German affairs his goal was to gain parity for Prussia with the
Austrian Empire. Bismarck sought to isolate Austria by gaining the diplomatic support of Russia and France. The Crimean War
(1854–1856) had embittered relations between Austria and Russia, while Prussian neutrality ensured that Russia would not
intervene in a German conflict. At the same time economic expansion had created increasing demand for national unity throughout
the German states. Being a very astute diplomat, Bismarck liked to keep his options open and, during these years, followed a policy
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History ­ Article ­ Bismarck, Otto von
that favored unification within the German Confederation. Bismarck's opportunity to demonstrate his skills came with the
complicated problems concerning Schleswig and Holstein. These German provinces were part of the Danish kingdom but had been
promised in 1852 that they would be separate from the Danish state. In 1864, however, much like 1848, the Danish king absorbed
Schleswig into Denmark. In response to an aroused German national feeling, the German Confederation decided to take action
against Denmark. Although Bismarck secretly desired to incorporate the duchies into Prussia, by dealing with the problem as a
violation of the Treaty of London (1852), he kept France and England out of the coming conflict. Austrian and Prussian troops
attacked Schleswig, quickly defeated the Danes, and the Austrians and Prussians agreed to administer the duchies in the Bad Gastein
Convention (August 1865).
There is little doubt that Bismarck intended to provoke a war with Austria. While criticizing Austria's administration of Holstein,
Bismarck appealed to German liberal national sentiment, demanding that a parliament be elected for all of Germany by universal
manhood suffrage in order to deal with this problem. In response, Austria mobilized the military forces of the Confederation against
Prussia. Bismarck already had protected his flank through a secret treaty with Italy and had obtained a promise of neutrality from
Napoleon III, suggesting territorial rewards along the Rhine. When the prewar crisis came to a head, the other German states in the
Confederation sided with Austria. Bismarck responded that the Confederation was dissolved, and without a declaration of war
invaded Bohemia, instigating the Austro­Prussian War (1866). What was expected to be a long­drawn­out conflict with an Austrian
victory ended up being decided in only seven weeks with a crushing defeat of Austria at the Battle of Königgrätz (Sadowa). Bismarck
convinced the Prussian king not to further humiliate the Austrians with a march to Vienna and to offer a lenient peace in the Treaty
of Prague. Prussia now annexed Schleswig­Holstein, Hanover, Hesse­Kassel, and the city of Frankfurt. In the new North German
Confederation, Austria was excluded, an assembly was popularly elected, with the king of Prussia as its executive. A defensive
alliance was also negotiated with Bavaria, Württemberg, and Baden. Back in Berlin Bismarck's prestige soared and the liberals in
Parliament actually retroactively approved his four years of unconstitutional government, which proved to be disastrous for the
future of German liberalism. The Iron Chancellor also was granted funds to buy an estate in Pomerania.
Bismarck's diplomatic genius was again evident during the events leading up to the Franco­Prussian War (1870). Napoleon III
became resentful when he failed to receive Belgium as a reward for his neutrality in 1866. The French were further antagonized over
Bismarck's support of Leopold von Hohenzollern­Sigmaringen's claim of succession to the Spanish throne. The French ambassador
was sent to discuss the problem with the Prussian king, who was on holiday at the resort of Bad Ems. The French demanded
assurances that Leopold's candidacy would be permanently withdrawn, while the king declined to make such a commitment.
Receiving a telegraph concerning what had occurred, Bismarck then attempted to embarrass the French by editing the famous Ems
telegram. All the conciliatory phrases were left out before it was released to the press, which fomented volcanic eruptions of
nationalism and prowar sentiment in both Paris and Berlin. According to Bismarck, he pushed both countries to the brink of war
because it was an "unavoidable necessity," when he realized that France would never peacefully allow Germany to unite. It was,
however, the French who first declared war on July 19, 1870. Six weeks later, they were quickly defeated when Napoleon III and his
army surrendered at the Battle of Sedan on September 2, 1870. In Paris, however, a republic was declared, and the new government
continued to resist the Germans. The Prussian victory led to the formation of a unified German Empire, including the South German
states. Alsace and Lorraine were annexed, ensuring that the French would seek revenge in the future. In the Hall of Versailles the
king of Prussia was proclaimed William I, German emperor. As a reward for this triumph Bismarck was granted the title of prince.
Bismarck remained chancellor of the German empire and prime minister in Prussia until 1890. The constitution, largely written by
Bismarck, maximized his personal power on the federal level and weakened the possibility for the Reichstag and the political parties
to challenge his authority. It combined conservative authoritarian political ideas with liberal economic precepts. The hereditary
leadership of the Empire was vested in the Prussian king with the title of German emperor, who appointed the imperial officials,
including the chancellor, directed foreign affairs, commanded the army, made war and peace, and initiated domestic legislation. Not
only had Bismarck succeeded in creating an authoritarian emperor, but he had dangerously done so in what was to become the most
powerful nation in Europe. Of crucial importance was the lack of ministerial responsibility over the army and foreign affairs. In the
area of economic modernization Bismarck worked with the National Liberal Party to transform Germany, despite the crash of 1873
and periods of depression and deflation through the next two decades. But Bismarck's other major internal policies were never so
successful. His attempt to stop the Catholic Center Party and his struggle during the Kulturkampf with the Catholic Church was a
failure. After 1878 his policies to suppress socialism were also unsuccessful, as the German Social Democratic Party continued to
increase its support among voters. To combat the threat of socialism, Bismarck sponsored the first comprehensive program of social
insurance covering health, old age, and unemployment benefits.
Bismarck's diplomatic efforts after unification were directed at consolidating and protecting the German Empire, especially against
French revenge. In 1872 he established the Three Emperors' League (1872–1878, 1881–1887). In 1879 he negotiated the Austro­
German Dual Alliance and in 1882 the Triple Alliance with Austria and Italy. In 1887 the Russo­German Reinsurance was signed. In
1878 he presided over the Congress of Berlin, which dealt with the issues of imperialism. In general his diplomatic skills helped
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Europe avoid a general war until 1914.
Bismarck continued in office after the death of William I, through the unfortunately short reign of Frederick III (died June 15, 1888),
and for almost two years for his son, William II. Disagreeing with Bismarck's control of ministers and his Russian policy, William
accepted the chancellor's resignation. Bismarck retired to his family estates, criticized his successors, and wrote his memoirs. He
disavowed the policies of the emperor until his death on July 30, 1898.
RECORD URL
http://online.infobase.com/Auth/Index?aid=19515&itemid=WE53&articleId=266983
RECORD INFORMATION
FROM: Germany
ISBN: 978-0-8160-4521-1
PUBLISHER: Facts On File
BY: Joseph A. Biesinger
PUBLISHED: 2006 Last updated: 2014
TYPE: Biography
ALSO KNOWN AS: Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck
DATE: b. 1815–d. 1898
OCCUPATION: chancellor of Germany
TAGS: 2nd millennium; Austro-Prussian War; Bismarck family; German emperors; German Empire; Germany; House of Hohenzollern; Knights of the Garter;
Knights of the Golden Fleece; Modern history; Otto von Bismarck; Unification of Germany
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