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Ancient African History
Africa is the place where the human
race first originated, so African history
goes back further than in any other
place on earth. At first, about two
million years ago, there may have been
only about 2000 people in all of Africa
(or anywhere in the world), and they
lived by gathering wild plants and by
scavenging meat that other, stronger
animals had killed. About 1.9 million
years ago, they began using stone
tools, and about 800,000 years ago
they began to use fire. Cooking their
food on the fire to make it easier to
digest may be what gave early people
the extra energy to grow bigger brains
and become modern people. These
first modern people probably started
out in south-east Africa.
lived. Then some people spread out
along the coasts, going around the
Arabian Peninsula and India and all the
way to Australia. Still most people lived
in Africa. But at the end of an Ice Age
(not the most recent Ice Age but the one
before that), people began to drift into
West Asia, following the herds of
probably got the idea from West Asia.
With farming the population expanded
quickly. By 3000 BC, there were so
many people in Africa that they started
to form into kingdoms. The first African
kingdom (and probably the first big
kingdom anywhere) was in Egypt,
where the Pharaohs built the
pyramids. South of Egypt,
along the upper Nile river,
t h e k i n g d o m o f Ku s h
(modern Sudan) developed
too. Kush and Egypt traded
with the Babylonians in
Western Asia and the
Harappans and Aryans in
India.
Around 100,000 years ago, people
living in Blombos Cave, on the
seaside in South Africa, were
gathering shellfish to eat. They may
have been making bone fish-hooks to
catch fish too.
By about 75,000 years ago, people
in Blombos Cave were mixing
minerals to make paint and carving
abstract designs into blocks of red
ochre. They made seashells into beads
for necklaces.
Genetic evidence shows that until
about this time - sometime after
100,000 years ago - Africa was the only
place on earth where modern people
animals.
Around 6000 BC, the climate in Africa
(and other places) got gradually hotter
and drier. The Sahara Desert was
forming again. It was harder to find
enough food. Some people in Africa
began farming to get more food. They
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Egypt.
Around 1550 BC, with
the establishment of the
New Kingdom in Egypt, the
Egyptians conquered Kush,
and they ruled Kush for the
next four hundred and fifty
years, until the collapse of
the New Kingdom in Egypt
around 1100 BC. Then Kush
became independent again,
and by 715 BC Kush's King
Piankhy was able to conquer
But soon after this, West Asian people
showed North Africans how to use iron
to make weapons, and the people who
knew how to use iron soon conquered
the people who didn't. About 700 BC,
the Phoenicians conquered part of
North Africa and founded the city of
Carthage. In 664 BC, the Assyrians
conquered Egypt. The Kushites learned
how to make iron from the Assyrians,
and they used their iron to become
even more powerful than they were
before. When the Persians conquered
the Phoenicians in 539 BC, Carthage
became an independent kingdom that
ruled most of the Western
Mediterranean.
In the more fertile parts of Africa, the
population kept on growing. By 300 BC,
the Bantu people, who lived along the
Niger river in West Africa, began to get
too crowded where they lived. West
Africa (now Nigeria and Cameroon) had
fertile land in the zone between the
Sahara desert and the rain forest, but it
was small. Gradually the Bantu began
to spread out from their home to other
parts of Africa, mainly to the south and
east, through the rain forest to the
grasslands on the other side. Europe,
too, was getting more crowded at this
time, and soon North Africa had its
second major invasion when the
Romans attacked in the 200s BC. The
Carthaginian general, Hannibal,
terrified the Romans. But in the end,
Carthage and the rest of North Africa,
including Egypt, had to submit to
Roman rule.
During the next several hundred
years, southern Africa also saw a lot of
political changes. The old kingdom of
Kush lost power to a new kingdom to
their south called Aksum (modern
Ethiopia), who also traded with the
Parthians, the Indians, and the Romans.
When Roman North Africa converted to
Christianity, many Axumites converted
too. Some cattle and sheep herders
from Central Africa gradually moved
south to the grasslands of South Africa,
taking their cattle and sheep with them.
At the same time, the Bantu kept
expanding, and learned how to farm
and how to make iron weapons. By the
400s AD, the Bantu had taken over
some of the East Coast of Africa and
some of the grasslands in southern
Africa.
After the 400s AD, the Bantu
expansion slowed down. Most of the
good farmland in southern Africa had
already been settled. What was left was
mainly desert or thick jungle or for
some other reason no good for farming.
So the Bantu left that land to the native
Khoikhoi and San. But now it was North
Africa's turn to see changes. In 429 AD,
the Vandals invaded North Africa, and
then after a short Roman reconquest the
Arabs took over North Africa in the late
600s AD.
By this time, Africa was becoming
more and more involved with Asia
through trade. The Islamic faith quickly
spread across the Sahara to West Africa,
where the kingdom of Ghana was
forming. By 900 AD, Ghana was wealthy
and powerful thanks to trading slaves
and gold across the Sahara desert with
the North Africans for salt and silk from
China. Ghana fell to Mali in the 1200s
AD, and the great Malian king Mansa
Musa built the trading city of Timbuktu.
By 1468, Mali in turn fell to the
Songhai. But the trade in salt, slaves,
and gold across the Sahara continued.
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At the same time, the Bantu settled
seaports on the eastern coast of Africa
and began trading with the Arabs and
the Indians there, like the people of
Aksum (which was still Christian). The
Bantu traded ivory, gold, iron, furs and
slaves for cotton, silk, glass beads, and
Chinese porcelain. By 1000 AD, the
people of south-east Africa had
developed a culture that mixed Bantu
and Arab together. People there spoke a
language called Swahili that was mainly
Bantu but with a lot of Arabic words.
Like the Ghanians, many of these Bantu
converted to Islam. By 1300, the
kingdom of Aksum had also converted
to Islam.
South of Mali, in the Congo River
Basin of Central Africa, people formed
the Kamilambian culture about 400 AD,
based on fishing in the Congo River and
its tributaries and selling dried fish.
People living a little further south still
may have been mining and selling
c o p p e r . B y t h e 8 0 0 s A D, t h e
Kamilambian chiefdom grew into the
Kisalian state. People began to use iron,
and they traded with the East African
coast. By the 1300s, the Kisalian state
changed to the Kabambian state, which
seems to have begun using small crossshaped pieces of copper as money.
Just before 1500 AD, the first
Portuguese explorers reached African
seaports, first in West Africa and then in
East Africa. These first European arrivals
were traders like the Arabs, but after
them would come the waves of
colonists who gradually conquered
most of Africa.
West African Kingdoms and
Empires
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Kingdom of Ghana
Between the 9th and 11th centuries C.E., the
kingdom of Ghana was so rich that its dogs wore
golden collars, and its horses, which were adorned
with silken rope halters, slept on plush carpets.
Based on animal luxuries alone, it
is no wonder that foreigners touted
Ghana's kings as the richest men
in the world.
By 1000 B.C.E., the nation had undergone strategic
expansion and taken control of a large pocket of
land between the upper Niger and Senegal Rivers.
The region was rich in gold, and its acquisition
meant that Ghana would become
a leading force in the transSaharan trade network.
The golden stool of the Ashanti
kings of Ghana, a symbol of their
power, has not been seen by the
general public for 300 years. Its
location is kept secret, and a
replica is used for public display.
Certainly they were living the high
life ... but how did they do it?
Located within the present-day
borders of Mauritania, Mali, and
Senegal, medieval Ghana literally
sat on a gold mine. The land's
abundance of resources allowed
Ghana's rulers to engage in years of prosperous
trading. Strategic governing coupled with great
location led to the rapid emergence of a very
wealthy empire.
Ghanaian Politics
The leader of all leaders was the
king, who was also known as the ghana, or war
chief. His word was law. He served as the
commander in chief of a highly organized army, the
controller of all trade activities, and the head
administrator of justice. Mayors, civil servants,
counselors, and ministers were appointed by the
king to assist with administrative duties — but at all
times, the king was in charge.
Gold in Wagadugu
Most of what we know about ancient Ghana — which
is more accurately called Wagadugu — is based on
writings of Arab travelers who came in contact with
the nation's peoples. "Ghana" was actually the title
given to Wagadugu kings and was used by the
Islamic "reporters" to describe the rich and
mysterious place they observed.
Each day, the king assembled his court and allowed
people to publicly voice their complaints. Beating
drums that resounded throughout the area signaled
the courts assemblage and people gathered to
speak their minds. Whether they were neighborly
conflicts, or cases of violated rights, the king listened
to the complaints and gave his judgment.
Evidence of Ghana's occupation dates back to the
4th century, but it was several hundred years later
that it became established as a nation by a tribe
known as the Soninke, whose leaders have been
credited with the early strengthening of the
Wagadugu state and the expansion of its territories.
Such hearings were reportedly peaceful, unless they
involved issues of criminal nature. Two of the most
serious criminal offenses were the denial of debt
and the shedding of blood. These crimes were tried
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by ordeal (torture, where he/she who committed the
crime was subject to severe pain).
desert to reach Ghana and "do business." Ghana's
king was the inventor of the silent barter. This
method was extremely useful in that it allowed trade
to proceed without requiring face-to-face interaction
between any two involved parties.
According to Islamic reports, the criminally accused
were given a foul concoction to drink that consisted
of sour and bitter-tasting wood and water. If he
vomited after tossing back the nasty brew he was
declared innocent and was congratulated for
passing the test. If he did not vomit, and the
beverage remained within, he was considered guilty
as charged and suffered the king's wrath.
The Ghanaians simply didn't share the same
languages with many of their traders. Going the
silent route allowed trade to move along swiftly
without anyone having to utter a word. Not only did
the king introduce the idea of the silent barter, he
also taxed all visitors for
both what they brought in
and what they took out.
Ghanaian citizens were not the only
ones put to the king's test.
Inhabitants of its conquered lands
were examined for their good
behavior and loyalty as well. In
territories where order and
obedience prevailed, and taxes
were properly paid, autonomy was
granted.
With this system, it is no
wonder that Ghana got rich
quickly. The wealth that the
kingdom acquired did not,
however, serve in its favor
forever. Competition from
other states in the gold trade
eventually took its toll.
Trans-Saharan Trade
When the king was not busy
enforcing his power among the people, he was
spreading it internationally through trade. At its
peak, Ghana was chiefly bartering gold, ivory, and
slaves for salt from Arabs and horses, cloth, swords,
and books from North Africans and Europeans.
This is a map of the ancient kingdom of Ghana,
displaying its location well north of present-day
Ghana. Today this area is part of the countries of
Mali and Mauritania.
Jealousy, fear, and anger of
Ghana's power prompted its neighbors to stand up
against the kingdom. Their efforts were at first weak
and insignificant, but eventually, in the mid-11th
century, a Muslim group known as the Almoravids
launched a devastating invasion on the capital city
of Koumbi Saleh. Though territories were seized,
and a tribute tax was enforced, Ghana recovered and
forced the invaders to withdraw.
A little less than 200 years later, however, Ghana
was not so lucky. The kingdom was vulnerable and
unable to prevent defeat. In 1240 C.E., Ghana was
absorbed into the growing nation of Mali, which
would soon become the next great empire.
As salt was worth its weight in gold, and gold was so
abundant in the kingdom, Ghana achieved much of
its wealth through trade with the Arabs. Islamic
merchants traveled over two months through the
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Mali: A Cultural Center
Mansa Musa, greatest king of Mali, is shown on this
Sundiata declared himself ruler, or mansa, of the
Spanish map of Africa.
region and set up capital in the city of Niani.
What would life be like if a magician ruled the land?
The history of ancient Mali gives us some hints. The
founder of this West African kingdom was well
known among his
people as a man of
magic with more than
a few tricks up his
sleeve.
The mosque at Timbuktu was the heart of the
kingdom of Mali. The empire of Mali expanded after
the fall of Ghana,
reaching its height
under the rule of
Kankan Musa (c.
1312-1327 C.E.). Many
monumental mosques
were constructed
during the reign of
Mansa Kankan Musa
who is still
remembered as a great
Islamic ruler.
Before the sorcerer's
reign, and the Malian
kingdom's birth, years
of competition and
fighting took place in
the lands west of the
upper Niger River. A
series of fierce battles took place, and in the 13th
century C.E., a group known as the Soso emerged
victorious. The Soso's new lands, which had once
belonged to the kingdom of Ghana, were like giant
pots of gold. But before the Soso could settle in and
enjoy the wealth, the great "sorcerer-king" Sundiata
moved in to take over.
Sundiata, also known as the "Lion King," was
determined to make changes, and indeed he did.
He decided to assign specific occupations to
particular family groups and developed a social
organization similar to a caste system. For example,
if born into a family of warriors, one was destined to
be a warrior. If born into a family of djeli, or
storytellers, one was destined to join the djeli
tradition. Choice of destiny was not an option.
The Lion King
Sundiata claimed that Mali was his by right of
inheritance and in 1230 A.D he defeated the Soso
and took back the land. According to legend,
Sundiata's rival, King Sumanguru, was also a
sorcerer. Sumanguru conjured up the heads of eight
spirits for assistance. Sundiata had stronger magic.
He defeated the eight heads and then shot an arrow,
which grazed Sumanguru's shoulder, draining him
of all remaining magic. With a pat on the back,
This system conveniently
meant that if born into a
family of mansa, one was part
of the ruling dynasty — the
Keita. It was one of Sundiata's
"tricks" to keep power in the
family.
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For the most part, the system worked. However, for a
short time, power escaped the Keita hands and
landed in those of a former slave. The disruptive
reign of the ex-slave, known as Sakura, paved the
way for Sundiata's nephew, Mansa Kankan Musa, to
back the throne. Best known for his wealth, his
generosity, and his dedication to Islam, Mansa Musa
took the kingdom to new heights.
Koran into his justice
system. Cities such as
Timbuktu and Gao
were developed into
international centers
of Islamic learning
and culture.
Elaborate mosques
and libraries were
built. The university
that arose in
Timbuktu might The African gold trade was indeed a lucrative
one, as shown by this gold from Ghana.
well have been the
world's first. The cities became meeting places for
poets, scholars, and artists.
A Golden Pilgrimage
Through involvement in the gold trade that swept
through Africa and reached all the way to Europe,
Mansa Musa led Mali to great riches. The region's
prosperity was nothing new, but based on Egyptian
records, Mansa Musa's display and distribution of
the wealth was unprecedented.
Though not everyone accepted the new faith and
culture, a strong relationship between religion and
politics quickly developed. Mansa Kankan Musa
ruled with all the ideals of a fine Muslim king. He
died in the mid-14th century, and Mali was never
quite the same. Internal squabbling between ruling
families weakened Mali's governing and its network
of states started to unravel. Then, in 1430, a group
of Berbers seized much of Mali's territory, including
Timbuktu.
In 1324, the great Mansa Musa set out on a
pilgrimage to Mecca. Decked out in his finest
clothes, he passed through Cairo with 500 slaves,
each of whom carried a six-pound staff of gold.
Backing them up were 100 camels, carrying in sum
over 30,000 more pounds of the precious metal.
Surely this was a sight to behold, and the accounts
left behind say that the show got even better. While
cruising through Cairo, Mansa Musa reportedly
handed out gifts of gold to bystanders. He
entertained the crowds and made a lucky few
suddenly rich.
Though the wealth and power that Mali possessed
was swept up quickly by the next great empire, its
legacy stands proudly. The pioneering spirit and
groundbreaking
accomplishments of
Mali's kingdom
make its rise and fall
an important chapter
of African history.
In Mansa Musa's Hands
Aside from being generous, Mansa Musa made an
important mark in Mali by introducing the kingdom
to Islam and making it one of the first Muslim states
in northern Africa. He incorporated the laws of the
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The Songhai Empire
The Songhai Empire was the largest and last of the
three major empires to emerge in West Africa. From
its capital at Gao on the Niger River, Songhai
expanded in all directions until it stretched from the
Atlantic Ocean to what is now northwest Nigeria and
western Niger. Gao, Songhai’s capital, which
remains to this day a small Niger River trading
center, was home to the famous Goa Mosque and
the Tomb of Askia, the most important of the
Songhai emperors. The cities of Timbuktu and
Djenne were the other major cultural and
commercial centers of the empire.
The Songhai people founded Gao around 800 A.D.
and established it as their capital in the 11th century
during the reign of Dia Kossoi. As the city and
region grew in importance, the Malian
Empire incorporated both as it expanded across the
West African savanna.
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Mali’s power however was eventually weakened by
palace intrigue that interrupted the orderly
succession of emperors. Recognizing the weakness
at the center of Mali, Gao rebelled in 1375. Songhai
then began its own imperial expansion at the
expense of Mali, conquering Mema in 1465 and
three years later seizing Timbuktu, the largest city in
the region, from the Taureg who had recently taken
it from Mali.
an army to conquer Songhai. Al-Mansur hoped to
control the West African gold fields and establish
himself as the Caliph of Sudan. Sunni Ali Ber, the military commander responsible
for these victories, is widely considered the first
great ruler of the Songhai Empire. He continued to
enlarge the empire, taking control of important
Trans-Saharan trade routes as well as other cities and
provinces of Mali. The invading Moroccans face Askia Ishaq II, the last
Songhai Emperor at the Battle of Tondibi. Although
they outnumbered the invading army, the Songhai
were routed by the Moroccans’ use of primitive
muskets called arquebus and six cannon, both of
which appeared for the first time with this invasion. The Songhai fell back in confusion particularly after
the Taureg, who were allied with the Moroccans,
killed Ishaq. After Sunni Ali Ber’s death in 1492, his son, Sonni
Baru, became emperor but soon lost the throne
to Askia (Emperor) Muhammad Toure one year later. The new ruler, a devout Muslim, was responsible for
few additional conquests. Instead he centralized the
bureaucracy, appointing virtually all of the mayors
and provincial governors, established Sharia law
(Islamic law) throughout the empire, expanded
Sankore University in Timbuktu and built numerous
schools through Songhai. Askia Muhammad Toure
also strengthened political and cultural ties with the
rest of the Muslim world, encouraging the
immigration of scholars and skilled workers from
Arabia, Egypt, Morocco and Muslim Spain. He was
the first West African ruler to allow the exchange of
ambassadors with these and other Muslim states.
The Moroccan Army, however, soon realized that
conquering Songhai was far easier than governing
it. Constant rebellions and resistance and shortages
of supplies forced Morocco to send additional
resources across the Sahara. Faced with these
logistical problems and the near impossibility of
controlling the gold mines, which prompted the
initial invasion, the Moroccans withdrew from the
region in 1661.
Nonetheless the Songhai Empire could not be
reestablished. The surviving elites fled Gao and set
up a new capital at Lulami. From 1591 to 1901
various Askias (Emperors) attempted to continue the
traditions of the old empire. Finally in 1901 French
colonial forces conquered their state, extinguishing
the last connection to Songhai’s earlier glory. After Askia Muhammad Toure’s death in 1528,
Songhai enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity
under a succession of emperors. Urban-centered
trade flourished in Gao, Timbuktu and Djenne
although the vast majority of Songhai’s inhabitants
were small farmers whose fortunes were tied to
success in agriculture rather than in commerce.
That period of peace and stability ended in 1591
when a civil war created an opportunity
for Morocco Sultan Ahmad I al-Mansur Saadi to send
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