Download Reading Handbook Reading for Different Purposes Having a clear

Reading Handbook
Reading for Different Purposes
Having a clear purpose can help you better remember and understand what you
read. You may be reading for relaxation and pleasure. Perhaps you need
information so you can pass a test. Maybe you need to follow directions to
program your VCR or to fill out a form. Perhaps you need to analyze an
argument to make sure it makes sense. You will need specific reading
strategies for every type of reading you do. This Reading Handbook will help
you become a better reader of all kinds of materials.
Reading Literature
Forms: stories, plays, poems, memoirs, biographies, some nonfiction
Purpose for reading: for pleasure, for increased understanding
Strategies for Reading
Predict
Visualize
Connect
Question
Clarify
Evaluate
See page S3 for details about each strategy.
Reading for Information
Forms: newspapers, magazines, reference works, on-line information, textbooks
Purpose for reading: to be informed
Strategies for Reading
Look for text organizers such as titles, subheads, graphics, and other
devices.
Notice the organization of the text.
Look for connections to something you already know.
Read, reread, and answer questions to increase your understanding.
See pages R4—R11 for help with these strategies.
R2
Critical Reading
On the second Monday in October, Americans celebrate Columbus Day. We honor the Italian explorer
who has been credited with discovering the Americas in 1492. Some people, however, think that we
need to look more closely at what Christopher Columbus actually did and at his place in history. I
am one of those people.
First of all. although we honor Columbus as the first European to set foot in the Americas, he may not
have been the first. Archaeologists have found Norse ruins in Greenland and what is now
Newfoundland dating from around 4.0. 1000. This evidence seems to prove that Vikings actually
reached the North American continent nearly 500 years before Columbus ever left the shores of
Spain.
Forms: newspaper editorials, advertisements, political ads, letters, opinion
statements
Purpose for reading: to be informed, to make a decision
Strategies for Reading
Find the main ideas.
Evaluate the supporting details.
Determine the author's purpose.
Decide how well the author achieved that purpose.
See pages R12—R17 for detailed examples.
Functional Reading
---see sample
Forms: instruction manuals, applications, workplace documents, product
information, technical directions, public notices
Purpose for reading: to make decisions and solve problems
Strategies for Reading
Skim the whole piece.
Read the information in the order presented.
Look carefully at any drawings or pictures.
Reread when the meaning is unclear. See pages R18—R23 for examples.
Methods of Reading
When you read something for the first time, review material for a test, or search for
specific information, you use different methods of reading. The following
techniques are useful with all kinds of reading materials.
Skimming When you run your eyes quickly over a text, looking at headings,
graphic features, and highlighted words, you are skimming. Skimming is useful
in previewing textbook material that you must read for an assignment.
Scanning In a text, to find a specific piece of information, such as the date of a
battle, use scanning. Place a card under the first line of a page and move it
down slowly. Look for key words and phrases.
In-Depth Reading In-depth reading involves asking questions, taking notes, looking
for main ideas, and drawing conclusions as you read slowly and carefully. Use
this type of reading for literary works and textbooks.
R3
Reading for Information
When you read informational materials such as textbooks, magazines, newspapers,
and on-line text, you need to use specific strategies. It is important to study text
organizers, such as headings and special type, that tell you what the main
ideas, facts, and terms are on the page. It is also important to recognize
patterns of organization in the text and to map them in a graphic organizer.
Using these strategies will help you read and understand any kind of
informational text.
Text Organizers
Writers use special features such as headings, large or dark type, pictures, or
drawings to show you the most important information on the page. You can use
these special features to help you understand and remember what you read.
Strategies for Reading
---see sample
A First, look at the title and any subheads. These will tell you the main ideas of the
lesson.
B Many textbooks have one or more objectives or key terms at the beginning of
each lesson. Keep these in mind as you read. This will help you identify the
most important details. You may also want to read any questions at the end of
the section to find out what you'll need to learn.
C Look at the visuals— photographs, illustrations, time lines, or other graphics—
and read their captions. These will help you understand what you are about to
read.
R4
D Watch for pulled-out text—quotations or other materials that are placed in a box
or in different type. Such text often includes especially surprising, important, or
memorable information.
E Don't forget about the key terms. These are often boldfaced or underlined where
they first appear in the text. Be sure you understand what they mean.
F Examine maps. Read their titles, captions, and legends. Make certain you
know what the map shows and how it relates to the text.
More Examples
To examine the structural features of other kinds of informational materials, see the
pages listed below.
For examples of newspaper articles, see pages 219, 305, 470, and 675.
For examples of magazine articles, see pages 65, 138, 396, and 617.
For an example of Internet articles, see pages 549 and 728.
R5
Patterns of Organization
Reading any type of writing is easier if you understand how it is organized. A writer
organizes ideas in a sequence, or structure, that helps the reader see how the
ideas are related. Four important structures are the following:
main idea and supporting details
chronological order
comparison and contrast
cause and effect
This page contains an overview of the four structures, which you will learn about in
more detail on pages R7—R11. Each type has been drawn as a map or graphic
organizer to help you see how the ideas are related.
Main Idea and Supporting Details
The main idea of a paragraph or a longer piece of writing is its most important point.
Supporting details give more information or evidence about the statements
made in the main idea.
Chronological Order
Writing that is organized in chronological order presents events in the order in which
they occur.
Comparison and Contrast
Comparison-and-contrast writing explains how two or more subjects are similar and
how they are different.
Cause and Effect
Cause-and-effect writing explains the relationship between events. The cause is the
first event. The effect happens as a result of the cause. A cause may have
more than one effect, and an effect may have more than one cause.
R6
Main Idea and Supporting Details
The main idea of a paragraph is the basic point you should remember from your
reading. The supporting details give you additional information about the main
idea. A main idea can be stated directly, or it can be implied. If it is stated, it can
appear anywhere in the paragraph. Often, it will be the first or the last sentence.
An implied main idea is suggested by the details that are provided.
Strategies for Reading
To find the main idea, ask, "What is this paragraph about?"
To find supporting details, ask, "What else do I learn about the main idea?"
MODEL
Main Idea as the First Sentence
Main Idea
When the nomads of Africa began using camels in the third century A.D., trade across
the Sahara became easier. The donkeys, horses, and oxen that had been used
previously could not travel far without stopping for food and water. Camels, on
the other hand, could cover 60 miles a day and go for up to ten days without water.
Supporting Details
MODEL
Main Idea as the Last Sentence
Supporting Details
The new trade routes passed through lands occupied by the Soninke people. These
farming people referred to their chief as ghana. Soon the land came to be known
as the kingdom of Ghana. The tribal chiefs taxed the goods that traveled across
their territory. By the eighth century, trade had made Ghana a rich kingdom.
Main Idea
MODEL
Implied Main Idea
The West African savannas and forests south of the savanna were rich in gold. No salt
was available there, though. In the Sahara, on the other hand, there was abundant
salt but no gold. Traders brought salt south through the desert and traded it for
gold mined from the forests.
Implied main idea: Gold and salt were two important items that were traded in West Africa.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
MODEL
Gold and salt made the king of Ghana a powerful man. The king controlled the trade
in these important items and collected gold nuggets and salt blocks from his
people. He was not only the richest man in the kingdom but also its religious
leader, military commander, and chief judge. Because Ghana had such a strong
economy and army, the king could force the rulers of neighboring lands to give
him gifts and pay taxes. If the rulers did so, the king of Ghana would treat them
well.
Read the model above and then do the following activities.
1. Identify the main idea of the paragraph. Is it stated or implied? If it is stated,
where does it appear in the paragraph?
2. List three details that support or give evidence for the main idea.
R7
Chronological Order
Chronological, or time, order presents ideas in the order that they happened.
Historical events are usually presented in chronological order. The steps of a
process may also be presented in time order.
Strategies for Reading
Look for the individual steps or events in the sequence.
Look for words and phrases that identify time, such as in a year, two hours
earlier, in A.D. 1066, and later.
Look for words that signal order, such as first, afterward, then, before, finally,
and next.
MODEL
Event
Time phrases
Mohammad, the prophet and, founder of Islam died in A.D. 632. That same year the
Muslim community chose a friend of Muhammad, Abu-Bakr, as its spiritual
leader, or caliph.
After Muhammad's death, many Muslim people stopped following Islamic beliefs.
Then Abu-Bakr used his strong army to control the people. By the time he died in
634, all of the Arabian Peninsula was under Muslim rule.
The next caliph, Umar, conquered Syria and parts of Egypt and Persia. The next
leaders, Uthman and Ali, continued conquering lands. In just over 100 years, the
land of Islam had grown so much that it covered 4,000 miles from the Indus River
to the Atlantic Ocean.
The armies of Uthman and All did not make the caliphs safe, however. In 656, Uthman
was assassinated. And in 661, so was Ali.
After Ali's death, a family called the Umayyads came to power. They moved the capital
of the empire to Damascus, in the Syrian territory. They also became wealthy and
gave up the simple lifestyle of the caliphs.
The actions of the Umayyads caused a split in the Muslim community. Groups against
the Umayyads were formed. This division led to the overthrow of the Umayyads in
750 by a group called the Abbasids. In 762, the Muslim capital was moved again.
This time it was set up, by the Abbasids, in Baghdad, in present-day Iraq.
Abbasid rule lasted for over 500 years, until 1258. By that time, the Muslim Empire
had become a major sea power. It traded widely with countries in Europe, Africa,
and Asia. The vision of one man, the prophet Muhammad, led to the growth of a
vast melting pot of religions, cultures, and peoples.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the model and then do the following activities.
1. Create a time line on your paper extending from the death of Muhammad in 632
to the end of Abbasid rule in 1258.
2. List three words or phrases in the model that signal time and three that signal
order. Find words and phrases in addition to the ones already done for you.
3. Although the model is organized in chronological order, it also includes other
types of organization. The fourth paragraph, for example, is organized by main
idea—the leaders' lack of safety—and supporting details. Find an example of
cause-and-effect order in the model, and list the cause(s) and effect(s) on your
paper.
R8
Comparison and Contrast
Comparison-and-contrast writing explains how two different subjects are alike and
different. This type of writing is usually organized by subject or by feature. In
subject organization, the writer discusses subject 1, then discusses subject 2.
In feature organization, the writer compares a feature of subject 1 with a
feature of subject 2, then compares another feature of both, and so on.
Strategies for Reading
•
Look for words and phrases that signal comparison, such as like, similarly,
both, also, and in the same way.
•
Look for words and phrases that signal contrast, such as unlike, on the other
hand, in contrast, and however.
Model
Subjects
Comparison word
Contrast words
Two stories, "Kelfala's Secret Something" and "Pumpkin Seed and the Snake," are
both folk tales that were told aloud long before they were written down. They are
from very different cultures, however, and have differences as well as similarities.
"Kelfala's Secret Something" is a tale of the Kikuyu people of Kenya, in East Africa.
"Pumpkin Seed and the Snake," on the other hand, is from the Hmong people of
Southeast Asia. The subjects and morals of the two tales are similar. Both stories
are about young people and marriage. Both have something to say about trickery.
A main character in each story is a young man. In "Pumpkin Seed and the Snake,"
however, the young man sometimes takes the form of a snake. Although both
main characters have to perform a task to win their brides, their tasks differ.
Kelfala must get the young girl Wambuna to talk to him. The snake, in contrast,
must move a rock for Pumpkin Seed's mother.
Both main characters use some kind of trickery to accomplish their goals. Kelfala's
whole plan to win Wambuna is based on a trick involving an imaginary animal.
The snake, on the other hand, is basically honest and direct. He does what the
mother asks and expects her to fulfill her promise. He only uses the trick of
changing into a man and back into a snake to avoid being killed.
The snake's tale ends happily. He marries Pumpkin Seed and becomes a full-time
man. Unlike the snake, however, Kelfala does not win his bride. He is so sure of
himself that he brings to friends along to watch his success with Wambuna. His
trick backfires, though. Since she talks to all three friends, she can't marry just
Kalfala.
The moral of both "Pumpkin Seed and the Snake" and "Kelfala's Secret Something"
seems to be that honesty is the best policy but that trickiness has its place. The
snake proves that a little trickery can save your life. However, as Kelfala learned,
if you get too tricky, you may end up getting tricked yourself.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the model and then do the following activities.
1. List all the words and phrases that signal comparisons and contrasts. Find words
in addition to the ones already done for you.
2. This model compares the two folk tales feature by feature. One feature is what
culture each tale is from; another is what the tales are about. List at least four
other features the writer discusses.
3. Create a Venn diagram and fill in the similarities and the differences between
"Kelfala's Secret Something" and "Pumpkin Seed and the Snake."
R9
Cause and Effect
Cause-and-effect writing explains the relationship between events. A cause is an
event that brings about another event. An effect is something that happens as
a result of the first event. Cause-and-effect writing is usually organized in one of
three ways:
1. Starting with cause(s) and explaining effect(s).
2. Starting with effects and explaining cause(s).
3. Describing a chain of causes and effects.
Strategies for Reading
To find the effect or effects, ask "What happened?"
To find the cause or causes, ask "Why did it happen?"
Look for signal words and phrases such as because, as a result, for that
reason, so, consequently, and since.
MODEL
Cause
Effect
Signal Words
One of the wont diseases ever recorded was the bubonic plague, or Black Death. It
broke out in China in the 1330s. Before it disappeared, 60 million people had died.
The bubonic plague is a disease that is carried by rats. Fleas carry the plague from one
rat to another. The fleas can also carry the disease to people. Sick people can pass
the disease to other people very quickly.
In the Middle Ages, people rarely took baths. As a result, most people had fleas and
lice living on their bodies. The plague was probably spread when Mongol
horsemen carrying infected fleas invaded China in the 14th century. Because
China was an important trading center, many people from all over the world came
there. Those people were exposed to the disease and took it back to their home
countries.
The Mongols kept moving westward, and in 1345, they attacked a port on the Black
Sea where many Italian traders lived. When these traders returned to Italy, they
infected their countrymen. The disease subsequently spread throughout Europe.
In the five years between 1347 and 1352, 25 million Europeans died.
Why did the Black Death claim so many victims? Part of the reason is that people in
medieval times did not understand that the disease was caused by infected fleas.
They did things that caused the disease to spread. They didn't often take baths,
and so they had fleas living on their bodies. They also dumped their garbage and
sewage into the streets. The consequence was a perfect breeding ground for rats
and fleas. Maybe the real question is not why so many people got the plague but
how anyone managed to survive.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
A. Reread the model on this page and then do the following activities.
1. List one effect that happened because people in medieval times didn't often take
baths.
2. Identify three words or phrases in the passage that signal causes and effects.
3. The bubonic plague spread by a series of causes and effects. Make a cause-
and-effect graphic in which you show what happened (the effects) when people
didn't take baths. In another graphic show the effects of throwing garbage and
sewage into the streets. Look on page R6 for examples of graphic organizers.
R10
B. Read the model below and then do the activities that follow.
MODEL
Tsunami is a word that brings fear to people who live near the sea. Also known in
English as a tidal wave, a tsunami is a huge ocean wave caused by an underwater
volcanic eruption or earthquake.
An earthquake or the explosion of a volcano on the ocean floor creates massive waves
of energy. These energy waves spread out in widening circles, like waves from a
pebble dropped into a pond. The waves are extremely long but not very high. For
this reason, a ship out on the ocean may feel only a slight rise and fall of the water
as a tsunami passes.
As the tsunami nears the shore, it begins to scrape along the ocean bottom. This
friction causes the waves in the front to slow down. As a result, the waves traveling
behind begin piling up and growing higher. This increase in height can happen
very quickly—by as much as 90 feet in 10 or 15 minutes.
The effects of a tsunami can include the death of many people and the destruction of
ships, buildings, and land along the shore. An especially dangerous situation may
occur when the first part of a tsunami to hit the shore is the trough, or low point,
rather than the crest of a wave. This trough sucks all the water away from the
shore and may attract curious people on the beach. Within a few minutes,
however, the crest of the wave will hit and may drown the onlookers. The most
destructive tsunami ever recorded struck Awa, Japan, in 1703. It left more than
100,000 people dead.
1. List two events that can cause a tsunami to form.
2. List what happens when a tsunami nears the shore.
3. Fill in a cause-and-effect chart that shows the cause of a tsunami and its multiple
effects.
C. After reading the model, do the activities that follow.
MODEL
In the Middle Ages, people believed that the earth was the center of the universe— that
the moon, the sun, and the other planets moved in circles around the earth. This
belief came not only from deeply held religious beliefs but from common sense.
Everyone could see that the sun seemed to move around the earth from morning to
evening. Because both religion and common sense agreed, the idea of an earthcentered universe was hard to change.
The idea did change, however. After studying the movement of the planets for 25
years, the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus concluded that the sun was actually at
the center of the universe. The earth, the other planets, and the stars revolved
around the sun. Copernicus knew that people would not like his idea because it
contradicted their religious beliefs, so he did not publish it until just before he died
in 1543.
About 60 years later, the Italian astronomer Galileo Galilei built a telescope and used
it to study the sky. Galileo then published his findings, which showed that
Copernicus had been right. These findings seemed to go against the teaching of the
Catholic Church. For this reason, Galileo became an enemy of the church. When
he refused to stop working and publishing his ideas, he was put on trial. As a result
of the trial, he was forced to sign a statement saying that the sun was not the center
of the universe. Another consequence of the trial was that Galileo spent the rest of
his life under arrest. Even so, his books and his ideas eventually spread throughout
Europe.
1. List the causes of the following events:
a.the strong belief in an earth- centered universe
b. Copernicus's fear of publishing his ideas
2. List two effects of Galileo's trial.
R11
Critical Reading: Persuasion
Every day you encounter writing whose purpose is to inform and persuade you.
This writing can take many forms, including speeches, newspaper editorials,
advertisements, and billboards. Good readers read critically, or question what
they read. They make sure the details presented are accurate and truly support
the author's main ideas.
What Is an Argument?
Much of the information you read is designed to persuade you to think a certain
way. This type of writing presents an argument for believing or doing
something.
An effective argument clearly makes a claim or states a position on an issue and
supports it with good evidence and logical reasoning. It also presents opposing
views and explains their weaknesses.
Strategies for Reading
Look for a statement of the main issue or problem and the author's position
on it.
Evaluate the evidence—facts, statistics, and opinions—that supports the
author's position.
Evaluate the evidence—facts, statistics, and opinions—that opposes the
author's position.
MODEL
Author's position
On the second Monday in October, Americans celebrate Columbus Day. We honor the
Italian explorer who has been credited with discovering the Americas in 1492.
Some people, however, think that we need to look more closely at what
Christopher Columbus actually did and at his place in our history. I am one of
these people.
Evidence supporting the author's position
First of all, although we honor Columbus as the first European to set foot in the
Americas, he may not have been the first. Archaeologists have found Norse ruins
in Greenland and what is now Newfoundland dating from around A.D. 1000. This
evidence seems to prove that Vikings actually reached the North American
continent nearly 500 years before Columbus ever left the shores of Spain.
Second, although Columbus did reach the Americas, he did not discover them. Nearly
100 million people were already living there when he arrived.
Opposing view
Defenders of Columbus argue that, in a way, he did discover the Americas. Even if he
wasn't the first person, or even the first European, to set foot on the land, his
voyages made the rest of the world aware of the Americas. In the years following
Columbus's voyages, Europeans cam to establish colonies and to explore the land.
Author's response
I argue that this spread of cultures brought great harm as well as great good to the
Americas. The Europeans who came to the Americas brought deadly diseases with
them. The native people had no immunity to such diseases as mumps, measles,
smallpox, and typhus. As a result, hundreds of thousands of them died.
Restatement of the author's position
In conclusion, I don't suggest that people should boycott their local Columbus Day
Parades. I do think, though, that we should create a more balanced picture of the
man we're honoring.
R12
Tracing an Author's Argument
Mapping the structure of an argument can help you read the argument critically and
decide if it is convincing.
Shown here is an example of a graphic that maps the argument presented in the
model on the previous page. You can create any type of graphic that helps you
organize the information presented in an argument. Be sure, however, to
include the following elements:
the main issue
the author's position on the issue
statements that support the author's position
evidence given to support those statements
statements against the author's position
evidence given to support those statements
author's conclusion
Issue: Honoring Columbus on Columbus Day
Author's position
We need to look more closely at what Christopher Columbus really did.
Support: Columbus was not the first European to reach the Americas.
Evidence: Norse ruins in Greenland and Newfoundland date from 500 years before
Columbus's voyage.
Support: Columbus did not discover the Americas.
Evidence: 100 million people were already living there when Columbus arrived.
Opposing view
Columbus did discover the Americas in a sense.
Support: He brought the area to the attention of the rest of the world and
opened it to settlement.
Evidence: Europeans came to establish colonies.
Author's response
Settlement had negative effects.
Support: Colonists brought diseases that killed the native people.
Evidence: Hundreds of thousands died.
Restatement of the author's position
It's fine to honor Columbus as long as we know whom and what we're honoring.
R13
Evaluating Reasoning
In a good argument, the author uses evidence and sound reasoning to support his
or her position. The conclusions the author makes follow clearly from the
information presented.
Four types of faulty, or bad, reasoning to watch out for are overgeneralization, the
either-or fallacy, the cause-and-effect fallacy, and circular reasoning.
Overgeneralization
An overgeneralization is a broad statement that says something is true for every
case, with no exceptions. In fact, very few statements have no exceptions.
Overgeneralizations often include the words all, none, everyone, no one, any, and
anyone.
Overgeneralization:
No one believes anymore that Christopher Columbus discovered America.
Reasonable statement:
Many people now believe that Christopher Columbus was not the first European to set
foot in the Americas.
Either-Or Fallacy
The either-or fallacy states that there are only two possible ways to view a situation
or only two options to choose from. In most situations, there are actually a
number of views and options. Either-or fallacies often include the words either .
. . or.
Either-or fallacy:
We must decide that Columbus's voyage to America was either good or bad.
Reasonable statement
Columbus's voyage to America had both good and bad effects.
Cause-and-Effect Fallacy
In the cause-and-effect fallacy, the author makes the assumption that because one
event follows another, the second event was caused by the first one. As you
read, think carefully about the evidence that one event actually caused another.
Cause-and-effect fallacy:
Columbus gave gifts to the Taino people. The Taino greeted Columbus and his men
warmly and generously.
Logical statement:
Columbus gave gifts to the Taino people to show his friendly intentions. The Taino
were a peaceful people who responded warmly to their visitors.
Circular Reasoning
Circular reasoning is an attempt to support a statement by simply repeating it in
other words. If a statement does not include any supporting facts and leaves
you thinking "So?" it may be circular reasoning.
Circular reasoning:
Columbus liked the Taino people because he felt warmly about them.
Logical statement:
Columbus liked the Taino people because they welcomed him warmly and, some say,
actually saved his life.
R14
Evaluating Evidence
In addition to evaluating the reasoning of an argument, you must carefully examine
the evidence the author presents to support his or her statements. First, you
must know the difference between facts and opinions. Then you should
assess the adequacy, accuracy, and appropriateness of the evidence.
There should be adequate, or enough, evidence to support what the author is
saying. To increase accuracy, or correctness, evidence needs to come from
reliable sources. To be appropriate, the evidence needs to apply to the topic
and to be free of stereotyping, bias and propaganda, and emotional
appeals.
Fact and Opinion
A fact is a statement that can be proved. An opinion is a statement of personal
belief that cannot be proved.
Opinion Statement:
Columbus was the cause of much misery in the Americas.
Factual Statement:
The explorers and settlers who came after Columbus brought diseases that caused
thousands of deaths among the native peoples.
Stereotyping
Stereotyping is a broad statement about a group of people that doesn't take
individual differences into account.
Stereotyping:
The native Taino people treated Columbus well because, like all natives, they were
warm and friendly.
Balanced statement:
Columbus said about the Taino people he met: "They are friendly and welldispositioned people who . . . gave everything they had with good will."
Bias
Bias is a preference for one side of an argument.
Bias:
Columbus caused more harm than good to the world.
Unbiased statement:
Columbus's discovery had both good and bad effects on the world.
Propaganda
Propaganda is a form of communication that may use distorted, false, or misleading
information.
Propaganda:
Columbus did great harm to the world and shouldn't be honored—even for a day.
Balanced statement:
Some people think that we need to look more closely at what Christopher Columbus
did and at his effects on history.
Emotional Appeals
Emotional appeals are statements that create strong feelings rather than using fact
and evidence to make a point. Be alert for
statements that make you feel angry, sad, or even very happy. Because emotional
appeals are directed at feelings rather than thoughts, they are also sometimes
called unreasonable persuasion.
Emotional appeal:
Columbus is a fraud and anyone who honors him on Columbus Day is an idiot.
Balanced statement:
I don't suggest that people should boycott their local Columbus Day parades. I do
think, though, that we should see a more balanced picture of the man we're
honoring.
R15
PRACTICE AND APPLY
A. Read the model on this page and do the activities that follow.
MODEL
What would you do if you brought home the hottest new CD by your favorite group,
Spice C, and your father made you take it back because of its "disgusting lyrics"?
You may think that an issue like that should stay in the family. I believe, though,
that the issue of certain song lyrics affects us all.
I think that young people should be able to make their own decisions about what to
listen to. Most other kids would probably agree with me. If we are not allowed to
make our own decisions about what we read, see, and hear, how will we ever learn
to think for ourselves? If we make a bad decision, we will learn from it and not
make the same mistake again. I also believe that adults need to look beyond just
the language of these songs and listen to their message. Nobody in his or her right
mind could truly listen and not realize that these songs tell it just like it is.
Most parents, on the other hand, would say that the rough language and the violence in
these songs are a bad influence on children. Parents see too much violence and
offensive language in the world as it is, and they feel it is their duty to protect their
children.
Most kids, and the musicians themselves, however, don't think the language is
harmful. They believe that young people are exposed to that kind of language in
many situations. If parents and other adults start censoring song lyrics, they won't
stop until everything that's printed, shown on television, or heard on the radio is
banned.
In conclusion, I think that kids must be allowed to make their own decisions about the
music they listen to. Parents need to trust their children and give them the chance
to act responsibly.
1. Map the structure of the argument in the model, using a graphic organizer like the
one on page R6 or one that you create yourself. Be sure to include the issue,
the author's position on the issue, support for the author's position, statements
against the author's position, evidence to support the opposing position, and the
author's conclusion.
2. The sentence, "Nobody in his or her right mind ... " is an overgeneralization.
Rewrite the statement to remove the overgeneralization.
3. Find another example of an overgeneralization in the model and write it on your
paper. Then rewrite it to eliminate the problem.
4. If the author of the model was a member of Spice C, do you think he or she might
have a preference for one side of the argument? Look at the examples of
evidence on p. R15. What is a preference for one side of an argument called?
5. On Your Own With a partner, decide on an issue you would like to argue for or
against. Then use the graphic on page R13 to map out your argument. Perhaps
you want to write in favor of restricting song lyrics or about another issue that
strongly interests you. Be sure to include the elements listed in activity 1 above
and on page R13.
R16
B. After reading the model, do the activities that follow.
MODEL
According to veterinarian and animal rights advocate Dr. Michael W. Fox, more than
100 million animals are used each year in laboratory tests. These animals are used
to study such things as the causes and effects of illnesses or to test drugs. This
unnecessary and cruel animal testing must be stopped.
The most important reason to stop this testing is that it's wrong to make living
creatures suffer. Even though they can't talk or use tools like people do, animals
have feelings. Zoologist Ann Speirs says that animals may suffer even more than
people do, because they can't understand what's happening to them.
People who favor animal research argue that the medical advances gained justify
animal experimentation. They also say that the suffering experienced by the
animals is minor. People like that are dumber than any guinea pig or rat.
Another important reason to stop this testing is that everybody knows it isn't reliable.
Many drugs that help animals are harmful to people. One example is the drug
thalidomide. After it was tested in animals in the 1960s, it was given to pregnant
women. Dr. Fox says that more than 10,000 of these women gave birth to
handicapped babies. The process works the other way, too. Many drugs that help
people kill animals. Two common examples are penicillin and aspirin.
Animal testing also affects the environment. The Animal Protection Service says that a
quarter of a million chimpanzees, monkeys, and baboons are taken from their
natural homes and used in laboratory experiments every year. Those animals will
never be able to reproduce, and the whole species may become extinct.
A final reason for not using animals in experiments is that there are other research
methods available. Two examples are using bits of animal tissue or cells and using
computer models.
In conclusion, animal testing has to stop because it just can't go on.
1. State the author's position on the subject.
2. List two pieces of evidence the author uses to support the argument.
3. The sentence, "People like that are dumber than any guinea pig or rat" is an
example of an emotional appeal. Rewrite the statement to make it more
reasonable.
4. List two other examples of faulty evidence or two examples of faulty reasoning
that you find. Rewrite them to correct the errors.
5. On Your Own The author of the model has a bias against animal testing. Find
some examples of bias in newspapers or magazines and bring them to class.
Good sources are newspaper editorial pages or personal essays in magazines.
R17
Functional Reading
It takes special strategies to read the many different kinds of materials that help you
function effectively in your everyday life. After studying the real-life examples in
this section, you will be better able to fill out an application; understand product
labels, public notices, and workplace documents; and follow various kinds of
instructions. Look at each example as you read the strategies.
Product Information: Medicine Label
Strategies for Reading
A Read the list of conditions or illnesses the medicine can be used to treat.
B Pay attention to the directions that tell who may take the medicine and who
should not. Also note the recommended daily dose: how much of the
medicine can be taken and how often.
C Read the warnings section carefully. This section tells users how long the
medicine can safely be taken and explains what to do if the condition continues
or new symptoms appear. It also contains a warning for new mothers and
mothers-to-be.
D Always note this sentence, which appears on many medicines. It serves as a
reminder that the medicine can be dangerous in the wrong hands.
---see sample
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the sample label and answer the following questions.
1. List the conditions or illnesses this medicine can be used to treat
2. Flow many tablets can safely be taken in one day?
3. Who should not take these tablets?
4. How often may these tablets be taken?
R18
Public Notice
Strategies for Reading
A Look for information that answers the question, "Whom is this notice for?"
B Look for instructions—what the notice is asking or telling you to do.
C See if there is any information about who created the notice.
D Look for information about how you can find out more about the topic.
E Check out any special features designed to make the notice easier to
understand.
---see sample
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the notice from the Bureau of the Census and answer the following
questions.
1. Whom is the notice for?
2. What does the notice ask people to do?
3. Who must be counted in the census?
R19
Workplace Document
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to get an idea of what the document is about. Titles are usually at
the top.
B Ask yourself who needs to read the document. Look for clues about whether it
applies to you.
C Notice any subheads or categories. These may be underlined, in bold type, or
set off in some other way. This document covers staffing, emergencies, and
cleanup.
D Look for instructions on what jobs should be done and how to do them. Pay
attention to sequence words such as first, next, then, before, and after.
"Little Folks" Play Group A
Notice to Volunteers B
Safety Guidelines
We're glad you have volunteered to help with our Saturday morning play group for
children ages 2-5. To keep our space clean and safe and our children happy,
we all must follow these safety rules.
Staffing C
An adult must be in the playroom at all times.
Children who go outside to the playground must be accompanied by an adult.
Emergencies
In case of emergency, dial 911 on the phone in the kitchen.
D
In case of fire, evacuate children through the main door or the emergency exit.
Before opening a door, touch it to see if it is hot. A fire extinguisher is located
next to the emergency exit.
Cleanup
Make sure the playroom is clean at the end of the day. Put all toys in the toy
chests. Wipe tabletops clean with a damp sponge.
Turn off lights as you leave.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the sample document and answer the questions.
1. What organization created the document?
2. Who needs to read the document?
3. Who should accompany children onto the playground?
4. If there is a fire, what should you do before opening a door?
5. What three things should you do before leaving for the day?
R20
Technical Directions
Strategies for Reading
A Read all the steps carefully at least once before you begin.
B Look for numbers or letters that show the order in which to follow the steps.
C Match the numbers or letters to a picture if there is one.
D Look for words that tell you what to do, such as press, select, or set
E Pay close attention to warnings or notes with more information.
---see sample
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the sample directions and answer the questions.
1. What happens when you press the ENTER button?
2. Explain the steps for getting to the Timer Setup menu.
3. What does the warning tell you?
R21
Application
Strategies for Reading
A Begin at the top. Skim the application to see what the different sections are.
B Look for instructions about other materials to be included with the application.
C Look for difficult words or abbreviations, such as NA (not applicable), Ph.
(phone number), or Y/N (yes or no).
D Read directions carefully. Sometimes you must make specific choices.
E Watch for sections you don't have to fill in or questions you don't have to
answer.
---see sample
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the application and answer the questions.
1. List the three different sections on this application.
2. What materials might have to be submitted with the application?
3. Which section of the application should you leave blank?
4. What date should you write on the application?
R22
Instruction Manual
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to find out for what tasks the manual gives instructions.
B Notice any subheads or categories. Many manuals are divided into sections.
You may not need to read the entire manual to get the information you need.
C Look for instructions on what steps to take and in what order.
D Pay attention to hints, tips, and examples. Hints and tips can help you avoid
common mistakes. Examples give you a clearer understanding of the material.
A Searching the Web
B
1. Simple Searches
C
Your internet connection is equipped with a search engine. Simply enter a term that
you would like to find out about, and the engine will search more than one
billion pages for that term.
D
Examples of search terms: Shakespeare, typhoons, spiders
Hint: Make sure your search term is spelled correctly.
2. Advanced Searches
Sometimes you may need to use more than one term to perform a precise search.
Here are some tips that can help you.
Using AND tells the engine to search for documents that contain both terms.
Examples: Galileo AND telescope, dogs AND training, science AND fiction
Using OR tells the engine to search for documents that contain either term.
Examples: movie OR film, car OR automobile, Kwanza OR Kwanzaa
Using NOT tells the engine to search for documents that contain one item but not
the other.
Examples: Apollo NOT rocket, Titanic NOT movie, amazon NOT river.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Reread the sample manual and answer the questions.
1. What task does this manual explain?
2. What two types of searches does the manual explain how to perform?
3. Name the three types of advanced searches.
4. You type in "Lincoln" to search for Web pages about the city of Lincoln,
Nebraska, but you keep finding information about Abraham Lincoln. What are
some ways you could refine your search?
Vocabulary Handbook
1 Context Clues
One way to figure out the meaning of a word you don't know is by using context
clues. The context of a word is made up of the punctuation marks, words,
sentences, and paragraphs that surround it.
1.1 General Context Sometimes you need to infer the meaning of an unfamiliar
word by reading all the information in the sentence or paragraph.
Kevin set out the broom, a dustpan, dusting rag, vacuum cleaner, and three trash bags before
beginning the monumental task of cleaning his room.
1.2 Definition Clue Often a difficult word will be followed by a definition of its
meaning. Commas, dashes, or other punctuation marks can signal a definition.
Sometimes the explorers encountered leads—open channels of water—and were forced to wait until
the ice formed before going on.
1.3 Restatement Clues Sometimes a writer restates a word or term in easier
language. Commas, dashes, or other punctuation can signal restatement clues,
as can expressions such as that is, in other words, and or.
The boy put together a hand-collated set of trading cards; in other words, he put together a set of
trading cards by hand.
1.4 Example Clues Sometimes a writer suggests the meanings of words with one
or two examples.
The cabin had several annoyances, including a leak in the roof, mildew in the shower, and a family
of mice.
1.5 Comparison Clues Sometimes a word's meaning is suggested by a
comparison to something similar. Like and as are words that signal comparison
clues.
The twins barreled through the living room like a tornado.
1.6 Contrast Clues Sometimes writers point out differences between things or
ideas. Contrast clues are signaled by words like although, but, however, unlike,
and in contrast to.
The student was usually bold, but he became hesitant when he had to present a report to the class.
1.7 Idiom and Slang An idiom is an expression whose overall meaning is different
from the meanings of the individual words. Slang is informal language
containing made-up words and ordinary words used to mean something
different from their meaning in formal English. Use context clues to figure out
the meaning of idioms and slang.
The mosquitoes drove us crazy on our hike through the woods. (idiom)
That's a really cool backpack that you are wearing. (slang)
TIP One way to clarify your understanding of a word is to write a sentence using
that word. Use one of the context-clue strategies in your sentence. For
example, use restatement or definition clues in a sentence where
understanding a word's precise meaning is important.
For more about context clues, see page 67; about idioms and slang, see page 142.
2 Word Parts
If you know roots, base words, and affixes, you can figure out the meanings of
many new words.
2.1 Base Words A base word is a complete word that can stand alone. Other
words or word parts can be added to base words to form new words.
2.2 Roots Many English words contain roots that come from older languages, such
as Latin, Greek, or Old English. A root is a word part that conveys the core
meaning 01 a word. Knowing the meaning of a word's root can help you
determine the word's meaning.
root
meanings
example
alt
high
altitude
vert
to turn
divert
grad
step, degree
graduate
2.3 Prefixes A prefix is a word part that appears at the beginning of a root or base
word to form a new word. A prefix usually changes the meaning of a root or a
base word.
prefix
meanings
example
ex-
out, from
export
in-
in, into, not
incite
pre-
before
preface
pro-
forward, favoring
propose
re-
again, back
rebound
un-
not, opposite
unhappy
2.4 Suffixes A suffix is a word part that appears at the end of a root or base word to
form a new word. Some suffixes do not change word meaning.
These suffixes are
added to nouns to change the number
added to verbs to change the tense
added to adjectives to change the degree of comparison
added to adverbs to show how
suffix
meanings
-s, -es
to change the number of a noun
example
snack + -s,
snacks
-ed, -ing
to change verb tense
walk + -ed,
walked
walk + -ing, walking
-er, -est
to change the degree of comparison
in modifiers
wild + -er,
wilder
wild + -est,
wildest
Other suffixes are added to a root or base word to change the word's meaning.
These suffixes can also be used to change the word's part of speech.
suffix
meanings
example
noun -age
action or process
pilgrim + -age, pilgrimage
adjective -able
ability
remark + -able, remarkable
verb -ize
to make
public + -ize, publicize
To find the meaning of an unfamiliar word, divide the word into parts. Think about
the meaning of the prefix, the suffix, and the root or base word. Use what you know
to figure out the meaning of the word. Then check to see if the word makes
sense in context.
For more about base words, see page 233; about prefixes and suffixes, see page
309.
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3 Word Origins
When you study a word's history and origin, you find out when, where, and how the
word came to be. A complete dictionary entry includes each word's history.
drama (dr'ä'ma) n. 1. A work that is meant to be performed by actors. 2. Theatrical
works of a certain type or period in history. [Late Latin drama, dramat-, from
Greek dran, to do or perform.]
This entry shows you that the earliest known ancestor of the word drama is the
Greek word Bran.
3.1 Word Families Words that have the same root make up a word family and have
related meanings. The charts below show two common Greek and Latin roots.
Notice how the meanings of the example words are related to the meanings of
their roots.
Latin Root: sens, to sense or feel
English: sensory perceived through one of the senses
sensitive responds to senses or feelings
sensation a perception or feeling
Greek Root: ast(e)r, star
English: asteroid a small object in outer space
asterisk a star-shaped punctuation mark
astronomy the study of outer space
TIP Once you recognize a root in one English word, you will notice the same root in
other words. Because these words developed from the same root, all of them
share a core meaning.
3.2 Foreign Words Some words come into the English language and stay the way
they were in their original language.
French
beret
ballet
vague
mirage
Spanish
taco
tornado
rodeo
bronco
Italian
alto
macaroni
cupola
For more about word families, see page 233; about researching word origins, see
page 742.
4 Synonyms and Antonyms
When you read, pay attention to the precise words a writer uses.
4.1 Synonyms A synonym is a word that has the same or almost the same
meaning as another word. Read each set of synonyms listed below.
occasionally/sometimes
parcel/package
pledge/vow
satisfy/please
rob/steal
schedule/agenda
TIP You can find synonyms in a thesaurus or dictionary. In a dictionary, synonyms
are often given as part of the definition of a word. Although synonyms have
similar meanings, the words do not necessarily mean exactly the same thing.
R26
4.2 Antonyms An antonym is a word with a meaning opposite of that of another
word. Read each set of antonyms listed below.
accurate/incorrect
similar/different
reveal/conceal
rigid/flexible
fresh/stale
unusual/ordinary
Sometimes an antonym is formed by adding the negative prefix anti-, in-, or un- to a
word as in the chart below.
word
prefix
antonym
climax
anti-
anticlimax
kind
un-
unkind
capable
in-
incapable
TIP Dictionaries of synonyms and antonyms, as well as some thesauri, can help
you find antonyms.
TIP Some dictionary entries are followed by notes that discuss synonyms and
antonyms. These notes often include sentences that illustrate the words'
shades of meaning.
For more about synonyms and antonyms, see page 631.
5 Connotative and Denotative Meaning
Good writers choose just the right word to communicate specific meaning.
5.1 Denotative Meaning A word's dictionary meaning is called its denotation. For
example, the denotative meaning of the word thin is "having little flesh; spare;
lean:
5.2 Connotative Meaning The images or feelings you connect to a word give it
finer shades of meaning, called connotation. Connotative meaning stretches
beyond a word's most basic dictionary definition. Writers use connotations of
words to communicate positive or negative feelings. Some examples are listed
below.
TIP A dictionary entry may be followed by a note that discusses connotative
meanings of the entry word and other related words.
For more information about denotative and connotative meanings, see page 572.
Positive Connotations
thin
careful
fast
thrifty
young
Negative Connotations
scrawny
cowardly
hasty
cheap
immature
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6 Homonyms, Homophones, and Words with Multiple Meaning
Homonyms, multiple-meaning words, and homophones can be confusing to readers
and can plague writers.
6.1 Homonyms Words that have the same spelling and pronunciation but different
meanings and (usually) origins are called homonyms. Consider this example:
The boy had to stoop to find his ball under the stoop.
Stoop can mean "a small porch," but an identically spelled word means "to bend
down!' Because the words have different origins, each word has its own
dictionary entry.
6.2 Words with Multiple Meanings Multiple-meaning words are ones that have
acquired additional meanings over time based on the original meaning.
Consider these examples:
Thinking of the horror movie made my skin creep.
I saw my little brother creep around the corner.
These two uses of creep have different meanings, but both of them have developed
from an original meaning. You will find all the meanings of creep listed in one
entry in the dictionary.
6.3 Homophones Words that sound alike but have different meanings and
spellings are called homophones. Consider this example:
Paul heard his mother say on the phone, "I hear you as well as I would if you were here talking to
me."
Homophones don't usually cause problems for readers, but they can be problems
for writers. Many common words with Old English origins (there, their; write,
right) have homophones. Be sure to check your writing for misspelled
homophones.
For more about homonyms and multiple- meaning words, see page 693.
7 Analogies
7.1 Analogy An analogy is a statement that compares two pairs of words. The
relationship between the first pair of words is the same as the relationship
between the second pair of words. In the example below, each pair of words
shows a relationship of an item to a category.
TRACTOR : VEHICLE :: wrench : tool
A tractor is a type of vehicle, just as a wrench is a type of tool.
The sign : stands for "is to:' The sign :: stands for "as:" The analogy is read like this:
"Tractor is to vehicle as wrench is to tool!"
7.2 Types of Analogies Here are some common word relationships.
type of analogy
example
relationship
Part to whole
STAGE: THEATER
is a part of
Synonyms
SWEET : THOUGHTFUL
is similar in meaning
Antonyms
FANTASTIC : AWFUL
is different in meaning
Degree of intensity
SATISFACTORY : EXCELLENT
is less (or more) intense
than
Characteristic to object
ROUGHNESS : SANDPAPER
is a quality of
Item to category
ANT : INSECT
is a type of
For more about analogies, see page 398.
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8 Specialized Vocabulary
Professionals who work in fields such as law, science, or sports use their own
technical or specialized vocabulary. Use these strategies to help you figure out
the meanings of specialized vocabulary.
8.1 Use Context Clues Often the surrounding text gives clues that help you infer
the meaning of an unfamiliar term.
8.2 Use Reference Tools Textbooks often define special terms when they are first
introduced. Look for definitions or restatement clues in parentheses. Also you
can try to find definitions in footnotes, a glossary, or a dictionary.
If you need more information, refer to a specialized reference, such as
an encyclopedia
a field guide
an atlas
a user's manual
a technical dictionary
9 Decoding Multisyllabic Words
Many words are familiar to you when you speak them or hear them. Sometimes
these same words may be unfamiliar to you when you see them in print. When
you come across a word unfamiliar in print, first try to pronounce it to see if you
might recognize it. Use these syllabication generalizations to help you figure out
a word's pronunciation.
Generalization 1: VCCV
When there are two consonants between two vowels, divide between the two
consonants unless they are a blend or a digraph.
pic/ture
a/brupt
feath/er
Generalization 2: VCCCV
When there are three consonants between two vowels, divide between the blend or
the digraph and the other consonant.
an/gler
mer/chant
tum/bler
Generalization 3: VCCV
When there are two consonants between two vowels, divide between the
consonants, unless they are a blend or a digraph. The first syllable is a closed
syllable, and the vowel is short.
lath/er
ush/er
ten/der
Generalization 4: Common Vowel Clusters
Do not split common vowel clusters, such as long vowel digraphs, r-controlled
vowels, and vowel diphthongs.
par/ty
poi/son
Generalization 5: VCV
fea/ture
When you see a VCV pattern in the middle of a word, divide the word either before
or after the consonant. Divide the word after the consonant if the first vowel
sound is short. Divide the word before the consonant if the first vowel sound is
long.
mod/el
ro/bot cra/zy
Generalization 6: Compound Words
Divide compound words between the individual words.
grape/vine life/guard
Generalization 7: Affixes
When a word includes an affix, divide between the base word and the affix.
re/bound
rest/less
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Spelling Handbook
1 Improving Your Spelling
Good spelling is important in all writing, from personal letters to research reports.
You can improve your spelling by practicing a few good habits. Read and write
as frequently as you can. Keep a personal spelling list of words you are not
sure how to spell and review this list regularly The following tips may also be
helpful.
Ways to Improve Your Spelling
1. Identify your spelling demons and conquer them. Keep a list of the words you
have misspelled in written assignments.
2. Pronounce words carefully. Pronouncing words correctly will help you spell
them correctly. For example, if you pronounce the word probably correctly, you
will not misspell it as probly.
3. Get into the habit of seeing the letters in a word. Look carefully at new or
difficult words. For example, look at a word like picnic, close your eyes and
picture the word in your mind, and spell it to yourself: p—i—c—n—i—c.
4. Create a memory device for a tricky word. Notice the following examples of
memory devices.
business (i)
I was involved in a big business.
principal (pal)
The principal is my pal.
principle (ple)
Follow this principle, please.
stationery (er)
Stationery is fine paper.
How to Master the Spelling of Difficult Words
1. Look at the word and say it one syllable at a time.
2. Look at the letters and say each one.
3. Write the word without looking at it.
4. Check to see whether you spelled the word correctly. If you made a mistake, repeat steps 1-3.
One of the best ways to improve your spelling is to learn the following rules.
Words Ending in a Silent e
When a suffix beginning with a vowel is added to a word ending in a silent e,
the e is usually dropped.
relate + -ion = relation
create + -ive = creative
amaze + -ing = amazing
fame + -ous = famous
When a suffix beginning with a consonant is added to a word ending in a
silent e, the e is usually retained.
hope + -ful = hopeful
noise + -less = noiseless
state + -ment = statement
wide + -ly = widely
The following words are exceptions: truly, argument, ninth, wholly.
Words Ending in y
When a suffix is added to a word ending in y preceded by a consonant, the y
usually is changed to i.
easy + -ly = easily
sixty + -eth = sixtieth
When -ing is added, however, the y does not change.
hurry + -ed = hurried
but hurry + -ing = hurrying
study + -ed = studied
but study + -ing = studying
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When a suffix is added to a word ending in y preceded by a vowel, the y
usually does not change.
employ + -er = employer
play + -ing = playing
Words Ending in a Consonant
In words of one syllable that end in one consonant preceded by one vowel,
double the final consonant before adding an ending that begins with a
vowel, such as -ing, -ed, or -er. These are sometimes called 1 + 1 + 1
words.
bat + -ed = batted
bed + -ing = bedding
run + -er = runner
grab + -ed = grabbed
The rule does not apply to words of one syllable that end in one consonant
preceded by two vowels.
treat + -ing = treating
loot + -ed = looted
near + -er = nearer
feel + -ing = feeling
The Suffixes -ness and -ly
When the suffix -ly is added to a word ending in I, both l's are retained. When ness is added to a word ending in n, retain both of the n's.
actual + -ly = actually
thin + -ness = thinness
Prefixes
When a prefix is added to a word, do not drop a letter from either the prefix or
the base word.
mis- + spell = misspell
re- + place = replace
il + legal = illegal
im- + perfect = imperfect
un- + even = uneven
dis- + approve = disapprove
pre- + view = preview
ir- + regular = irregular
Words with the Seed Sound
Only one English word ends in —sede: supersede. Three words end in —ceed:
exceed, proceed, and succeed. All other verbs ending in the sound seed are
spelled with —cede.
concede
precede
recede
secede
Words with ie and ei
When the sound is long e (e), the word is spelled ie except after c.
i before e
believe
shield
yield
field
niece
brief
except after c
ceiling
deceive
receive
conceive
conceit
receipt
The following words are exceptions:
either, weird, species, neither, seize, leisure.
2 Using the Right Word
Like good musicians or good athletes, good writers do the little things well. One of
these little things is the correct use of words. It is actually one of the keys to
good writing. As you look at the following groups of words, notice how the
words' meanings differ. Be careful when you spell those easily confused words.
accept, except Accept means "to agree to something" or "to receive something!'
Except usually means "not including!'
Kay did accept the invitation to go camping.
Everyone except the reporters dashed onto the field.
all ready, already All ready means "all are ready" or "completely prepared."
Already means "previously:'
The astronauts were all ready for the landing.
The other team has already started practicing.
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all right All right is the correct spelling. Alright is nonstandard English and should
not be used.
a lot A lot is informal. It should not be used in formal writing. Alot is always
incorrect.
borrow, lend Borrow means "to receive something on loan: Lend means "to give
out temporarily!'
Some students borrow money to pay for a college education.
Please lend me a pencil.
capital, capitol, the Capitol Capital means "excellent," "most serious," or "most
important"; it also means "seat of government!' Capitol means a "building in
which a state legislature meets: The Capitol is the building in Washington, D.C.,
in which the U.S. Congress meets.
Murder is a capital crime.
The state senate held hearings at the capitol.
In 1814 British soldiers burned the White House and the Capitol.
desert, dessert Des'ert means "a wilderness" or "a dry sandy, barren region."
Desert' means "to abandon:' A dessert is a sweet food, such as a cake or pie,
served at the end of a meal.
The Gobi Desert is in eastern Asia. The soldiers deserted their position. Strawberry
pie is a delicious dessert
good, well Good is always an adjective. Well is usually an adverb. Well can be an
adjective meaning "in good health:
Juan felt good about finishing the marathon.
Julio plays the drums well.
Marco was not well enough to play.
hear, here Hear means "to listen to: Here means "in this place:
Because of the noisy crowd, we couldn't hear the candidate.
After leaving Italy, my grandparents settled here in Dallas.
its, it's Its is a possessive pronoun. It's is a contraction of it is or it has.
The city lost its electricity.
It's almost time for summer vacation.
Lay, lie Lay is a verb that means "to place: It takes a direct object. Lie is a verb that
means "to be in a certain place" or "to be in a horizontal position: Lie never
takes a direct object.
Lay the books on the desk.
Our land lies near the river.
lead, led Lead can be a noun that means "a heavy metal" or a verb that means "to
show the way: Led is the verb's past-tense form.
A plumb is a weight made of lead.
Maria leads the league in home runs.
She led a discussion on ways to help homeless people.
learn, teach Learn means "to gain knowledge." Teach means "to instruct:'
Raul is learning how to play chess.
Alicia is teaching Spanish.
like, as, as if Use as or as if, not like, to introduce a clause.
He walks as if his ankle were sore.
loose, lose Loose means "free" or "not fastened: Lose means "to mislay or suffer
the loss of something:'
The door hinges are loose.
The plane began to lose altitude.
of Use have, not of, in phrases such as could have, should have, and must have.
We could have won if our leading scorer had not fouled out.
passed, past Passed is the past tense of pass and means "went by." Past is an
adjective that means "of a former time." Past is also a noun that means "the
time gone by."
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We passed through the Grand Tetons during our vacation.
We have learned from our past experiences.
Ebenezer Scrooge relives his past.
peace, piece Peace means "calm or quiet" Piece means "a part of something!'
Music can bring a sense of peace.
We cut the pizza into pieces.
principal, principle Principal means "of chief or central importance" or "the head of
a school!' Principle means "basic truth," "standard," or "rule of behavior!'
The principal cities of France include Paris and Marseilles.
The school principal presented awards.
In social studies we discussed the principles of government.
raise, rise Raise means "to lift" or "to make something go up." It takes a direct
object. Rise means "to go upward!' It does not take a direct object.
Dr. King's speeches raised hopes for a more just society.
The sun rises in the east.
set, sit Set means "to place." It takes a direct object. Sit means "to occupy a seat or
a place!' It does not take a direct object.
He set the papers on the desk.
Let's sit here.
stationary, stationery Stationary means "fixed or unmoving!' Stationery means
"fine paper for writing letters."
A stationary clock glowed on the wall.
I received a letter written on White House stationery.
than, then Than is used to introduce the second part of a comparison. Then means
"next in order!'
The pen is mightier than the sword.
The air grew still, and then raindrops pattered on the roof.
their, there, they're Their means "belonging to them." There means "in that place!'
They're is a contraction of they are.
In 1804, Lewis and Clark led their expedition from St. Louis.
The explorers built a fort in what is now North Dakota, and they spent the winter
there.
Lewis and Clark collected valuable information about the geography of the Pacific
Northwest; they're remembered for their wilderness travels.
to, too, two To means "toward" or "in the direction of." Too means "also" or "very."
Two is the number 2.
We went to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C.
It was too cold to play baseball.
Two newspapers sent critics to review the new play.
weather, whether Weather refers to conditions such as temperature or cloudiness.
Whether expresses a choice.
Meteorologists use computers to forecast the weather.
We must decide whether to speak out or remain silent.
whose, who's Whose is the possessive form of who. Who's is a contraction of who
is or who has.
Whose arguments seem more convincing?
Who's going to volunteer to work at the hospital?
your, you're Your is the possessive form of you. You're is a contraction of you are.
Please take your places at the starting line.
You're going to the library after school, aren't you?
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1 The Writing Process
The writing process consists of four stages: prewriting, drafting, revising and editing,
and publishing and reflecting. As the graphic below shows, these stages are not
steps that you must complete in a set order. Rather, you may return to any one
at any time in your writing process, using feedback from your readers along the
way.
1.1 Prewriting
In the prewriting stage, you explore your ideas and discover what you want to write
about.
Finding Ideas for Writing
Try one or more of the following techniques to help you find a writing topic.
Personal Techniques
Practice imaging, or trying to remember mainly sensory details about a subject—its look, sound,
feel, taste, and smell.
Complete a knowledge inventory to discover what you already know about a subject.
Browse through magazines, newspapers, and online bulletin boards for ideas.
Start a clip file of articles that you want to save for future reference. Be sure to label each clip
with source information.
Sharing Techniques
With a group, brainstorm a topic by trying to come up with as many ideas as you can without
stopping to critique or examine them.
Interview someone who knows a great deal about your topic.
Writing Techniques
After freewriting on a topic, try looping, or choosing your best idea for more freewriting. Repeat
the loop at least once.
Make a list to help you organize ideas, examine them, or identify areas for further research.
Graphic Techniques
Create a pro-and-con chart to compare the positive and negative aspects of an idea or a course
of action.
Use a cluster map or tree diagram to explore subordinate ideas that relate to your general topic
or central idea.
Determining Your Purpose
Your purpose for writing may be to express yourself, to entertain, to describe, to
explain, to analyze, or to persuade. To clarify it, ask questions like these:
Why did I choose to write about my topic?
What aspects of the topic mean the most to me?
What do I want others to think or feel after they read my writing?
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Identifying Your Audience
Knowing who will read your writing can help you focus your topic and choose
relevant details. As you think about your readers, ask yourself questions like
these:
What does my audience already know about my topic?
What will they be most interested in?
What language is most appropriate for this audience?
LINK TO LITERATURE Roald Dahl—the author of Boy: Tales of Childhood, on
page 533— understood the importance of identifying his audience. According to
Dahl, "Children are a great discipline because they are highly critical. ... And if
you think a child is getting bored, you must think up something that jolts [the
child] back. Something that tickles."
1.2 Drafting
In the drafting stage, you put your ideas on paper and allow them to develop and
change as you write.
Two broad approaches in this stage are discovery drafting and planned drafting.
Discovery drafting is a good approach when you are not quite sure what you think
about your subject. You just plunge into your draft and let your feelings and
ideas lead you where they will. After finishing a discovery draft, you may decide
to start another draft, do more prewriting, or revise your first draft.
Planned drafting may work better for research reports, critical reviews, and other
kinds of formal writing. Try making a writing plan or a scratch outline before you
begin drafting. Then, as you write, you can fill in the details.
The changes you make in your writing during this stage usually fall into three
categories: revising for content, revising for structure, and proofreading to
correct mistakes in mechanics.
Use the questions that follow to assess problems and determine what changes
would improve your work. Revising, Editing, and Proofreading
1.3 Revising for Content
Revising for Content
Does my writing have a main idea or central focus? Is my thesis clear?
Have I incorporated adequate detail? Where might I include a telling detail,
revealing statistic, or vivid example?
Is any material unnecessary, irrelevant, or confusing?
Writing Tip Be sure to consider the needs of your audience as you answer the
questions under Revising for Content and Revising for Structure. For example,
before you can determine whether any of your material is unnecessary or
irrelevant, you need to identify what your audience already knows.
Revising for Structure
Is my writing unified? Do all ideas and supporting details pertain to my main
idea or advance my thesis?
Is my writing clear and coherent? Is the flow of sentences and paragraphs
smooth and logical?
Do I need to add transitional words, phrases, or sentences to make the
relationships among ideas clearer?
Are my sentences well constructed? What sentences might I combine to
improve the grace and rhythm of my writing?
Proofreading to Correct Mistakes in Grammar, Usage, and Mechanics
When you are satisfied with your revision, proofread your paper, looking for
mistakes in grammar, usage, and mechanics. You may want to do this several
times, looking for different types of mistakes each time. The following checklist
may help.
Sentence Structure and Agreement
Are there any run-on sentences or sentence fragments?
Do all verbs agree with their subjects?
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Do all pronouns agree with their antecedents?
Are verb tenses correct and consistent?
Forms of Words
Do adverbs and adjectives modify the appropriate words?
Are all forms of be and other irregular verbs used correctly?
Are pronouns used correctly?
Are comparative and superlative forms of adjectives correct?
Capitalization, Punctuation, and Spelling
Is any punctuation mark missing or not needed?
Are all words spelled correctly?
Are all proper nouns and all proper adjectives capitalized?
WRITING TIP For help identifying and correcting problems that are listed in the
Proofreading Checklist, see the Grammar Handbook, pages R66—R99.
You might wish to mark changes on your paper by using the proofreading symbols
shown in the chart below.
Proofreading Symbols
---see symbols
1.4 Publishing and Reflecting
Always consider sharing your finished writing with a wider audience. Reflecting on
your writing is another good way to bring closure to a project.
Creative Publishing Ideas
Following are some ideas for publishing and sharing your writing.
Post your writing on an electronic bulletin board or send it to others via email.
Create a multimedia presentation and share it with classmates.
Publish your writing in a school newspaper or literary magazine.
Present your work orally in a report, a speech, a reading, or a dramatic
performance.
Submit your writing to a local newspaper or a magazine that publishes student
writing.
Form a writing exchange group with other students.
WRITING TIP You might work with other students to publish an anthology of class
writing. Then exchange your anthology with another class or another school.
Reading the work of other student writers will help you get ideas for new writing
projects and find ways to improve your work.
Reflecting on Your Writing
Think about your writing process and whether you would like to add what you have
written to your portfolio. You might attach a note in which you answer questions
like these:
What did I learn about myself and my subject through this writing project?
Which parts of the writing process did I most enjoy and which did I least enjoy?
As I wrote, what was my biggest problem? How did I solve it?
What did I learn that I can use the next time I write?
1.5 Using Peer Response
Peer response consists of the suggestions and comments your peers or classmates
make about your writing.
You can ask a peer reader for help at any point in the writing process. For example,
your
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peers can help you develop a topic, narrow your focus, discover confusing
passages, or organize your writing.
Questions for Your Peer Readers You can help your peer readers provide you
with the most useful kinds of feedback by following these guidelines:
Tell readers where you are in the writing process. Are you still trying out ideas,
or have you completed a draft?
Ask questions that will help you get specific information about your writing.
Open-ended questions that require more than yes-or-no answers are more
likely to give you information you can use as you revise.
Give your readers plenty of time to respond thoughtfully to your writing.
Encourage your readers to be honest when they respond to your work. It's OK if
you don't agree with them—you always get to decide which changes to
make.
Tips for Being a Peer Reader
Follow these guidelines when you respond to someone else's work:
Respect the writer's feelings.
Make sure you understand what kind of feedback the writer is looking for, and
then respond accordingly.
Use "I" statements, such as "I like ... ," "I think ... ," or "It would help me if ...."
Remember that your impressions and opinions may not be the same as
someone else's.
WRITING TIP Writers are better able to absorb criticism of their work if they first
receive positive feedback. When you act as a peer reader, try to start your
review by telling something you like about the piece.
The chart below explains different peer- response techniques to use when you are
ready to share your work.
Peer-Response Techniques
Sharing Use this when you are just exploring ideas or when you want to celebrate the completion of
a piece of writing.
Will you please read or listen to my writing without criticizing or making suggestions afterward?
Summarizing Use this when you want to know if your main idea or goals are clear.
What do you think I'm saying? What's my main idea or message?
Replying Use this strategy when you want to make your writing richer by adding new ideas.
What are your ideas about my topic? What do you think about what I have said in my piece?
Responding to Specific Features Use this when you want a quick overview of the strengths and
weaknesses of your writing.
Are the ideas supported with enough examples? Did I persuade you? Is the organization clear
enough for you to follow the ideas?
Telling Use this to find out which parts of your writing are affecting readers the way you want and
which parts are confusing.
What did you think or feel as you read my words? Would you show me which passage you were
reading when you had that response?
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2 Building Blocks of Good Writing
Whatever your purpose in writing, you need to capture your readers' interest,
organize your ideas well, and present your thoughts clearly. Giving special
attention to some particular parts of a story or an essay can make your writing
more enjoyable and more effective.
2.1 Introductions
When you flip through a magazine trying to decide which articles to read, the
opening paragraph is often critical. If it does not grab your attention, you are
likely to turn the page.
Kinds of Introductions
Here are some introduction techniques that can capture a reader's interest.
Make a surprising statement.
Provide a description.
Pose a question.
Relate an anecdote.
Address the reader directly.
Begin with a thesis statement.
Make a Surprising Statement Beginning with a startling statement or an
interesting fact can capture your reader's curiosity about the subject, as in the
model below.
MODEL
Bats may seem like a nuisance, but not as much as the 99 pounds of insects
a colony of bats can eat in one night. Despite their ugly faces and all the
scary stories about them, bats are very important and useful animals.
Provide a Description A vivid description sets a mood and brings a scene to life
for your reader. Here, details about wild geese swimming in an unfrozen river
during the winter set the tone for an essay about water pollution.
MODEL
The temperature is 15 degrees. Drifts of snow hide picnic tables and swings.
In the middle of the park, however, steam rises from a lake where Canada
geese swim. It sounds beautiful, but the water is warm because it has
been heated by a chemical plant upriver. In fact, the geese should have
migrated south by now.
Ask a Question Beginning with a question can make your reader want to read on
to find out the answer. The following introduction asks what two seemingly
different things have in common.
MODEL
What do billiard balls and movie film have in common? It was in an effort to
find a substitute for ivory billiard balls that John Hyatt created celluloid.
This plastic substance was also used to make the first movies.
Relate an Anecdote Beginning with a brief anecdote, or story, can hook readers
and help you make a point in a dramatic way. The anecdote below introduces a
humorous essay about a childhood experience.
MODEL
When I was younger, my friends and I would rub balloons in our hair and
make them stick to our clothes. Someone once said, "I get a charge out of
this," not knowing that we were really generating static electricity.
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Address the Reader Directly Speaking directly to readers establishes a friendly,
informal tone and involves them in your topic.
MODEL
Find out how to maintain your cardiovascular system while enjoying yourself.
Come to a free demonstration of Fit for Life at the Community Center
Friday night at 7:00 P.M.
Begin with a Thesis Statement A thesis statement expressing a paper's main idea
may be woven into both the beginning and the end of nonfiction writing. The
following is a thesis statement that introduces a literary analysis.
MODEL
In "The Great Taos Bank Robbery," Tony Hillerman presents eccentric
characters with loving detail. It is clear that he has affection for the
hapless criminals as well as for the fascinated, easygoing townspeople.
WRITING TIP In order to write the best introduction for your paper, you may want to
try more than one of the methods and then decide which is the most effective
for your purpose and audience.
2.2 Paragraphs
A paragraph is made up of sentences that work together to develop an idea or
accomplish a purpose. Whether or not it contains a topic sentence stating the
main idea, a good paragraph must have unity and coherence.
Unity
A paragraph has unity when all the sentences support and develop one stated or
implied idea. Use the following techniques to create unity in your paragraphs.
Write a Topic Sentence A topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph; all
other sentences in the paragraph provide supporting details. A topic sentence is
often the first sentence in a paragraph. However, it may also appear later in the
paragraph or at the end, to summarize or reinforce the main idea.
MODEL
Flying a hot-air balloon looks fun, but it requires a good mathematician to fly
one safely. Since a balloon is controlled by heating and cooling the air
inside the balloon, the pilot must know the temperature of the air outside
it and how high he or she plans to fly in order to calculate the maximum
weight the balloon can carry. It the pilot doesn't do the math correctly, the
balloon could crash.
LINK TO LITERATURE Notice the use of strong topic sentences in "The Noble
Experiment" by Jackie Robinson, as told to Alfred Duckett. For example, on
page 290 the first paragraph begins, "Winning his directors' approval was
almost insignificant in contrast to the task which now lay ahead of the Dodger
president." The rest of the paragraph then explains that task in detail.
Coherence
A paragraph is coherent when all its sentences are related to one another and flow
logically from one to the next. The following techniques will help you achieve
coherence in paragraphs.
Present your ideas in the most logical order.
Use pronouns, synonyms, and repeated words to connect ideas.
Use transitional devices to show the relationships among ideas.
In the model below, the writer used some of these techniques to create a unified
paragraph.
MODEL
Just the name "alligator snapping turtle" brings to mind a ferocious,
frightening creature. But this fascinating creature is protected by law. The
alligator snapping turtle can grow to more than 200 pounds. In fact,
whereas common snapping turtles rarely weigh 30 pounds, alligator
snappers have been recorded with weights up to 300 pounds.
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2.3 Transitions
Transitions are words and phrases that show the connections between details.
Clear transitions help show how your ideas relate to each other.
Kinds of Transitions
Transitions can help readers understand several kinds of relationships:
Time or sequence
Spatial order
Degree of importance
Compare and contrast
Cause and effect
Time or Sequence Some transitions help to clarify the sequence of events over
time. When you are telling a story or describing a process, you can connect
ideas with such transitional words as first, second, always, then, next, later,
soon, before, finally, after, earlier, afterward, and tomorrow.
MODEL
Long before mountain bikes were made, bicycles were much less
comfortable. The first cycle, which actually had four wheels, was made in
1645 and had to be walked. Later, two-wheeled cycles with pedals were
called boneshakers because of their bumpy ride.
Spatial Order Transitional words and phrases such as in front, behind, next to,
along, nearest, lowest, above, below, underneath, on the left, and in the middle
can help readers visualize a scene.
MODEL
The audience entered the theater from the back. The stage was in front, and
fire exits were located to the right and left of the stage.
Degree of Importance Transitional words such as mainly, strongest, weakest, first,
second, most important, least important, worst, and best may be used to rank
ideas or to show degree of importance.
MODEL
At best, the canoeing trip would mean not hearing my little brother and sister
squabbling over the TV. At the very worst, I could expect to be living in
wet clothes for two weeks.
Compare and Contrast Words and phrases such as similarly, likewise, also, like,
as, neither . . . nor, and either . . . or show similarity between details. However,
by contrast, yet, but than, unlike, instead, whereas, and while show difference.
Note the use of both types of transitions in the model below.
MODEL
While my local public library is a quieter place to study than home, I don't
always get much done in the library. I'm so used to the cheerful chatter of
my baby brother that, by contrast, the stillness of the library makes me
sleepy.
WRITING TIP When you begin a sentence with a transition such as most important,
therefore, nevertheless, still, or instead, set the transition off with a comma.
Cause and Effect When you are writing about a cause-and-effect relationship, use
transitional words and phrases such as since, because, thus, therefore, so, due
to, for this reason, and as a result to help clarify that relationship and to make
your writing coherent.
MODEL
Because we missed seven days of school as a result of snowstorms, the
school year will be extended. Therefore, we will be in school until June 17.
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2.4 Conclusions
A conclusion should leave readers with a strong final impression. Try any of these
approaches.
Kinds of Conclusions
Here are some effective methods for bringing your writing to a conclusion:
Restate your thesis.
Ask a question.
Make a recommendation.
End with the last event.
Restate Your Thesis A good way to conclude an essay is by restating your thesis,
or main idea, in different words. If possible, link the beginning of your
conclusion with the information you have presented, as the model below shows.
MODEL
As these arguments show, planting a tree on Arbor Day is more than just a
pleasant symbolic act. It also makes your neighborhood a more attractive
place and sets an example for others to follow. Planting one tree will make
a difference in the environment that goes well beyond this one day.
Ask a Question Try asking a question that sums up what you have said and gives
readers something new to think about. The question below concludes a piece of
persuasive writing and suggests a course of action.
MODEL
If tutoring a younger student in writing, reading, or math can help you do
better in these subjects yourself, shouldn't you take advantage of the
opportunities to tutor at Western Elementary School?
Make a Recommendation When you are persuading your audience to take a
position on an issue, you can conclude by recommending a specific course of
action.
MODEL
Since learning a foreign language gives you a chance to expand your world
view and make new friends, register for one of the introductory courses
that start next fall.
End with the Last Event If you're telling a story, you may end with the last thing
that happens. Here, the ending includes an important moment for the narrator.
MODEL
As I raced down the basketball court in the final seconds of the game, I felt as
alone as I did on all those nights practicing by myself in the driveway. My
perfect lay-up drew yells from the crowd, but I was cheering for myself on
the inside.
2.5 Elaboration
Elaboration is the process of developing a writing idea by providing specific
supporting details so your readers aren't left with unanswered questions.
Facts and Statistics A fact is a statement that can be proved, while a statistic
is a fact stated in numbers. Make sure the facts and statistics you supply are
from a reliable, up- to-date source. As in the model below, the facts and
statistics you use should strongly support the statements you make.
MODEL
The Statue of Liberty, one of the most popular monuments in the United
States, is expensive to maintain. From 1983 to 1986, it cost $66 million to
renovate the copper-covered 151-foot-tall statue.
WRITING TIP Facts and statistics are especially useful in supporting opinions. Be
sure that you double-check in your original sources the accuracy of all facts and
statistics you cite.
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Sensory Details Details that show how something looks, sounds, tastes,
smells, or feels can enliven a description, making readers feel they are actually
experiencing what you are describing. Which senses does the writer appeal to
in this paragraph?
MODEL
I was nervous during my math test last week. Chewing on my pencil left my
mouth feeling dry and flaky. My palms were sweating so much, they left
stains on the pages. The ticking of the clock seemed like the beating of a
drum inside my head.
Incidents From our earliest years, we are interested in hearing stories. One
way to illustrate a point powerfully is to relate an incident or tell a story, as
shown in the example below.
MODEL
People who are afraid of heights tend to panic even in perfectly safe
situations. When my friend Jill and I rode to the top floor of a shopping
mall, I enjoyed the view from the glass-enclosed elevator, but Jill's face
was pale and her hands trembled.
Examples The model below shows how using an example can help support or
clarify an idea. A well-chosen example often can be more effective than a
lengthy explanation.
MODEL
The origins of today's professional sporting events can be traced to ancient
games from countries all over the world. For example, hockey is believed
to have come from an old Dutch game called kolf, played on the ice with a
ball and crooked sticks.
LINK TO LITERATURE Notice on page 225 the use of examples in the selection
from Russell Freedman's Immigrant Kids. When the writer states that none of
the immigrants forgot his or her first glimpse of the Statue of Liberty, he
elaborates by using the example of immigrant Edward Corsi's first impression.
Quotations Choose quotations that clearly support your points and be sure that
you copy each quotation word for word. Remember always to credit the source.
MODEL
Usually, the reader is left to infer the theme of a work, but sometimes the
author actually states the theme of his or her work. After the tragic events
that come to pass in Rod Serling's teleplay The Monsters Are Due on
Maple Street, the narrator says to the audience, 'The tools of conquest do
not necessarily come with bombs and explosions and fallout. There are
weapons that are simply thoughts, attitudes, prejudices—to be found only
in the minds of men. For the record, prejudices can kill and suspicion can
destroy."
2.6 Using Language Effectively
Effective use of language can help readers to recognize the significance of an
issue, to visualize a scene, or to understand a character.
Specific Nouns Nouns are specific when they refer to individual or particular
things. If you refer to a city, you are being general. If you refer to Dallas, you
are being specific. Specific nouns help readers identify the who, what, and
where of your message.
Specific Verbs Verbs are the most powerful words in sentences. They convey
the action, the movement, and sometimes the drama of thoughts and
observations. Verbs such as trudged, skipped, and sauntered provide a more
vivid picture of the action than the verb walked.
Specific Modifiers Use modifiers sparingly, but when you use them, make
them count Is the building big or towering? Are your poodle's paws small or
petite? Once again, it is the more specific word that carries the greater impact.
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3 Descriptive Writing
Descriptive writing appears almost everywhere, from cookbooks to poems. You
might use a description to introduce a character in a narrative or to create a
strong closing to a persuasive essay. Whatever your purpose and wherever you
use description, the following guidelines for good descriptive writing will help
you.
3.1 Key Techniques
Consider Your Goals What do you want to accomplish in writing your description?
Do you want to show why something is important to you? Do you want to make
a person or scene more memorable? Do you want to explain an event?
Identify Your Audience Who will read your description? How familiar are they with
your subject? What background information will they need? Which details will
they find most interesting?
Gather Sensory Details Which sights, smells, tastes, sounds, and textures make
your subject come alive? Which details stick in your mind when you observe or
recall your subject? Which senses does it most strongly affect?
MODEL
Red and gold pennants welcomed us to the fairgrounds, where the delicious
aroma of popcorn mingled with the pungent odor of the animals. Food
vendors hawked their wares, and the tinny music of the carousel filled the
air. Munching on roasted peanuts, we took our seats on the rough
benches of the judging arena.
You might want to use a chart like the one shown here to collect sensory details
about your subject.
Organize Your Details Details that are presented in a logical order help the reader
form a mental picture of the subject. Descriptive details may be organized
chronologically, spatially, by order of importance, or by order of impression.
MODEL
As I stepped into my grandmother's front hall, a whirl of sweet and salty
odors overwhelmed me. Peeking around the corner, I witnessed a parade
of pies, breads, and salads stretching across every inch of counter space.
LINK TO LITERATURE Note on page 440 the organization of details describing
Miss Pride's shop in Joan Aiken's "The Serial Garden!' The narrator begins with
the shop window as seen from the outside, then describes the interior of the
store, and finally shows the reader Miss Pride herself.
Show, Don't Tell Instead of just telling about a subject in a general way, provide
details and quotations that expand and support what you want to say and that
enable your readers to share your experience. The following sentence, for
example, just tells and doesn't show: I was proud of myself when the local
paper published my article. The model below uses descriptive details to show
how proud the writer felt:
MODEL
I've delivered newspapers since I was eight, but last Thursday, for the first
time, the newspaper printed an article I had written for a contest. I bought
a pad of sticky notes and left messages for my customers: "Check out
page B7. Enjoy the paper today." I thought about signing the article, but I
decided that would be too much.
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3.2 Options for Organization
Spatial Order Choose one of these options to show the spatial order of a scene.
MODEL
The room was quiet—too quiet. To my left loomed the big white refrigerator.
To my right squatted the gas stove, blue pilots glowing. Straight ahead
sat the huge island. Cutting board, knife, and half-chopped carrot lay
abandoned upon it now. Stepping cautiously to the right of the island, I
came in view of the oven. That's where I froze. The oven door was open. A
faint, white light pulsed and flickered high in one corner.
WRITING TIP Some useful transitions for showing spatial relationships are behind,
below, here, in the distance, on the left, over, and on top.
Order of Impression Order of impression is how you notice details.
MODEL
As she lost her balance on the slippery pebbles, her first thought was that
she was going to sprain her ankle and be swept away by the surf. Her
heart beat rapidly, but before she knew it, she was sitting in the sand
while the warm surf rolled in, almost covering her. She realized that the
water was not going to reach beyond her shoulders and that she was
safe. Then, as suddenly, she felt the tug of the water in the other direction
as the undertow flowed back, sweeping the sand from under her as it
went. As soon as the water had receded she scrambled to her feet.
WRITING TIP Use transitions that help readers understand the order of the
impressions you are describing. Some useful transitions are after, next, during,
first, before, finally, and then.
Order of Importance You might use order of importance to organize your
description.
MODEL
I think our school should offer karate as part of the gym program. There are
several reasons this is a good idea. First, karate is fun, and anyone can
learn to do it. Many students who want to learn martial arts can't afford to
because private lessons are so expensive. Karate is also a great form of
exercise. It improves strength, coordination, and grace. The most
important reason, though, is that learning karate makes students more
confident and gives them skills that can help them throughout life.
WRITING TIP Use transitions that help the reader understand the order of
importance. Some useful transitions are first, second, mainly, more important,
less important, and least important.
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4 Narrative Writing
Narrative writing tells a story. If you write a story from your imagination, it is a
fictional narrative. A true story about actual events is a nonfictional narrative.
Narrative writing can be found in short stories, novels, news articles, and
biographies.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
A successful narrative should
include descriptive details and dialogue to develop the characters, setting, and
plot
have a clear beginning, middle, and end
have a logical organization with clues and transitions to help the reader
understand the order of events
maintain a consistent tone and point of view
use language that is appropriate for the audience
demonstrate the significance of events or ideas
4.1 Key Techniques
Identify the Main Events What are the most important events in your narrative? Is
each event part of the chain of events needed to tell the story? In a fictional
narrative, this series of events is the story's plot.
MODEL
A kind stranger gives Roger money he doesn't really deserve.
Roger goes to buy a fancy new bike with the money.
A salesperson accuses him of not having the money to buy the bike.
Roger decides not to buy the bike and leaves to find the stranger.
Define the Conflict What is the main problem the character faces? Is the conflict
an internal one or an external one?
MODEL
The bikes were lined up in a row, beautiful, shiny, and bright. He ran his hand over
the handlebars and felt his face flush with embarrassment. How could he spend
all the stranger's money on a fancy bike that he didn't really need?
Depict Characters Vividly What do your characters look like? What do they think
and say? How do they act? What vivid details can show readers what the
characters are like?
MODEL
The salesperson strolled the show-room carpet like a rich prince walking the
halls of his castle. He said nothing, but his pacing made the boy slightly
nervous.
WRITING TIP Dialogue is an effective way of developing characters in a narrative.
As you write dialogue, choose words that express your characters' personalities
and show how the characters feel about one another and about the events in
the plot.
MODEL
"Can I help you?" a voice from behind him asked.
Roger turned to see the salesperson looking down at him.
"I was just looking at this 12-speed, super-lightweight bike," Roger said,
swallowing.
"That's a pretty expensive bike you're touching, young man," the salesperson
replied skeptically.
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4.2 Options for Organization
Option 1: Chronological Order One way to organize a piece of narrative writing is
to arrange the events in chronological order, as shown below.
MODEL
Roger walked into the store where he had seen the fancy new bikes.
"Can I help you?" the salesperson asked, his voice showing interest in a sale.
Roger mumbled and pointed toward the bikes against a wall.
As his hand glided over the handlebars on the bike, he barely heard the
salesperson ask if he even had the money for the new bike.
Roger's hand flashed dollar bills, perhaps but he let go of the bike. He ran for the
door, knowing he had to find the old woman who had given him the money.
WRITING TIP Try hooking your reader's interest by opening a story with an exciting
event or some attention-grabbing dialogue. After your introduction, you may
need to go back in time and relate the incidents that led up to the opening
event.
Option 2: Character Chronological order is the most common way to organize a
narrative. However, you may wish to focus more directly on character.
Introduce the main character.
Describe the conflict the character faces.
Relate the events and the changes the character goes through as a result of
the conflict.
Present the final change or new understanding.
Option 3: Focus on Conflict When the telling of a fictional narrative focuses on a
central conflict, the story's plot may follow the model shown below.
MODEL
The brothers arrive at the high school gym long before the rest of the
basketball team. Although they are physically identical, their personalities
couldn't be more different. Mark is outgoing and impulsive, while Matt is
thoughtful and shy.
Matt realizes his brother is missing shots on purpose and believes they will
lose the championship.
Matt has a chance at a basketball scholarship if they win the
championship.
Mark needs money to buy a car.
Matt and Mark have stood by each other no matter what.
Matt retells a family story in which their grandfather chose honor and
integrity over easy money. Mark plays to win.
5 Explanatory Writing
Explanatory, or expository, writing informs and explains. For example, you can use
it to explain how to cook spaghetti or to compare two pieces of literature. The
rubric on the left shows you the basics of successful expository writing.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful explanatory writing should
engage the interest of the reader
state a clear purpose
develop the topic with supporting details
create a visual image for the reader by using precise verbs, nouns, and
adjectives
conclude with a detailed summary linked to the purpose of the composition
5.1 Types of Explanatory Writing
There are many types of explanatory writing. Select the type that presents your
topic most clearly.
Compare and Contrast How are two or more subjects alike? How are they
different?
MODEL
While the domestic honeybee has been bred for good honey production and
gentleness, the Africanized bee is a "wild" bee that is quick-tempered and
uncomfortable around animals and people.
Cause and Effect How does one event cause something else to happen? What are
the results of an action or a condition?
MODEL
If the Africanized bees drive out or breed into domesticated honeybee
colonies, commercial beekeepers in the United States could be forced out
of business.
Analysis/Classification How does something work? How can it be defined? What
are its parts? How can it be classified into categories?
MODEL
The Africanized honeybee is a new insect nuisance that could affect
agriculture, recreation, and the environment.
Problem-Solution How can you identify, state and analyze a problem? How can it
be solved?
MODEL
The best way to protect yourself against the stings of the Africanized bee is to
understand how it behaves.
5.2 Compare and Contrast
Compare-and-contrast writing examines the similarities and differences between
two or more subjects.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful compare-and-contrast writing should
clearly state the subjects that are being compared and contrasted.
include specific, relevant details.
be easy to follow, using either feature-byfeature or subject-by-subject
organization.
use transitional words and phrases to signal similarities and differences.
end with a conclusion that explains the decision made or creates a new
understanding of the subjects compared.
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Options for Organization
Compare-and-contrast writing can be organized in different ways. The examples
that follow demonstrate feature-by-feature organization and subject-by-subject
organization.
Option 1: Feature-by-Feature Organization
MODEL
I. Similarities in Appearance
Subject A.
Domestic honeybees are about five-eighths of an inch long.
Subject B.
Africanized bees, contrary to rumor, are about the same size.
II. Differences in Temperament
Subject A.
Domestic honeybees are bred to be gentle.
The Africanized bee is a "wild" bee that is quick-tempered
around animals and people.
Subject B.
Option 2: Subject-by-Subject Organization
MODEL
I. Domestic Honeybees
Feature 1.
Domestic honeybees are about five-eighths of an inch long.
Feature 2.
Domestic honeybees are bred to be gentle.
II. Africanized Bees
Feature 1.
Africanized bees are about five-eighths of an inch long.
The Africanized bee is a "wild" bee that is quick-tempered
around animals and people.
Feature 2.
WRITING TIP Remember your purpose for comparing and contrasting your
subjects, and support your purpose with expressive language and specific
details.
5.3 Cause and Effect
Cause-and-effect writing explains why something happened, why conditions exist,
or what resulted from an action or condition.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful cause-and-effect writing should
clearly state the cause-and-effect relationship being examined.
show clear connections between causes and effects.
present causes and effects in a logical order and use transitions effectively.
use facts, examples, and other details to illustrate each cause and effect.
use language and details appropriate to the audience.
Options for Organization
Your organization will depend on your topic and purpose for writing.
If you want to explain the causes of an event, such as the threat of Africanized
bees to commercial beekeeping, you might first state the effect and then
examine its causes.
If your focus is on explaining the effects of an event, such as the appearance of
Africanized bees in the United States, you might first state the cause and then
explain the effects.
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Sometimes you'll want to describe a chain of cause-and-effect relationships to
explore a topic such as the myths about the Africanized honeybee.
WRITING TIP You must test cause-and-effect relationships as you work. First, be
sure that the first event you mention comes before the second event in time.
Next, be sure that the effect you state could not have happened without the
cause you state.
5.4 Problem-Solution
Problem-solution writing clearly states a problem, analyzes the problem, and
proposes a solution to the problem. It can be used to identify and solve a
conflict between characters, analyze a chemistry experiment, or explain why
the home team keeps losing.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful problem-solution writing should
give a clear and concise explanation of the problem and its significance.
present a workable solution and include details that explain and support it.
conclude by restating the problem.
use language, tone, and details appropriate to the audience.
Options for Organization
Your organization will depend on the goal of your problem-solution piece, your
intended audience, and the specific problem you choose to address. The
organizational methods that follow are effective for different kinds of problemsolution writing.
WRITING TIP Have a classmate read and respond to your problem-solution writing.
Ask your peer reader: Is the problem clearly stated? Is the organization easy to
follow? Do the proposed solutions seem logical?
5.5 Analysis/Classification
In writing an analysis, you explain how something works, how it is defined, or what
its parts are. The details you include will depend upon the kind of analysis you
write.
Process Analysis What are the major steps or stages in a process? What
background information does the reader need to know— such as definitions of
terms or a list of needed equipment—to understand the analysis? You might
use process analysis to explain how to program a VCR or prepare for a test, or
to explain how to replace a window pane.
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Definition Analysis What are the most important characteristics of a subject? You
might use definition analysis to explain a quality such as proficiency, the
characteristics of a sonnet, or the features of a lever.
Parts Analysis What are the parts, groups, or types that make up a subject? Parts
analysis could be used to explain the makeup of an organization or the
anatomy of an insect.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful analysis should
hook the readers' attention with a strong introduction.
clearly state the subject and its parts.
use a specific organizing structure to provide a logical flow of information.
use transitions to connect thoughts.
use language and details appropriate to the audience.
Options for Organization
Organize your details in a logical order appropriate to the kind of analysis you're
writing.
Option 1: Process Analysis A process analysis is usually organized
chronologically, with steps or stages in the order they occur.
MODEL
Insect metamorphosis
Many insects grow through a four-step cycle.
Step 1 egg
Step 2 larva
Step 3 pupa
Step 4 adult
Option 2: Definition Analysis You can organize the details in a definition or parts
analysis in order of importance or impression.
MODEL
What is an insect?
An insect is a small animal with an external skeleton, three body segments,
and three pairs of legs.
Feature 1: external skeleton
Feature 2: three body segments
Feature 3: three pairs of legs
Option 3: Parts Analysis The following parts analysis explains the parts of an
insect's body.
MODEL
An insect's body is divided into three main parts.
Part 1: The head includes eyes, mouth, and antennae.
Part 2: The thorax has the legs and wings attached to it.
Part 3: The abdomen contains organs for digesting food, eliminating waste,
and reproducing.
Option 4: Classification/Division The following classification divides things into
groups or categories based on certain characteristics.
MODEL
One way that scientists classify insects is into species that are social insects
and those that are not. The vast majority of insects are not social insects.
The parents get together simply to mate. The female lays her eggs near a
food source and then abandons them. Social insects, on the other hand,
live in organized communities in which members depend on one another.
Individual insects have specific roles within the community. All termites
and ants are social insects. Many bees and some wasps are also social
insects.
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6 Persuasive Writing
Persuasive writing allows you to use the power of language to inform and influence
others. It can take many forms, including speeches, newspaper editorials,
billboards, advertisements, and critical reviews.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
Successful persuasion should
have a strong introduction
clearly state the issue and the writer's position
present ideas logically
answer opposing viewpoints
end with a strong argument or summary or a call for action
6.1 Key Techniques
State Your Opinion Taking a stand on an issue and clearly stating your opinion are
essential to every piece of persuasive writing you do.
MODEL
Everyone should read "Waters of Gold." It teaches the importance of helping
others and not expecting a reward for your kindness.
Know Your Audience Who will read your writing? What do they already know and
believe about the issue? What objections to your position might they have?
What additional information might they need? What tone and approach would
be most effective?
MODEL
Do you ever feel that you could do more to help others? I just read a Chinese
folktale about a woman who shared all that she had in order to help others
in need.
Support Your Opinion Why do you feel the way you do about the issue? What
facts, statistics, examples, quotations, anecdotes, or opinions of authorities
support your view? What reasons will convince your readers? What evidence
can answer their objections?
MODEL
We should all do what we can to help others. Knowing that we have done
something worthwhile makes us feel good. Kind deeds are their own
reward.
Ways to Support Your Argument
Statistics Facts that are stated in numbers
Examples Specific instances that explain your point
Observations Events or situations you yourself have seen
Anecdotes Brief stories that illustrate your point
Quotations Direct statements from authorities
Begin and End with a Bang How can you hook your readers and make a lasting
impression? What memorable quotation, anecdote, or statistic will catch their
attention at the beginning or stick in their minds at the
end? What strong summary or call to action can you conclude with?
INTRODUCTION
If you want to spend an enjoyable evening with your neighbors seeing a live
performance, shopping for handmade crafts, or enjoying good food, will
you go to the Community Center? Probably not. It's just too hot!
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CONCLUSION
Many people have put their time into providing our town with entertainment.
Many more have participated in events planned by others. But those
numbers are decreasing because the Community Center is uncomfortable
on hot summer evenings. Let's purchase an air-conditioning system so
people can enjoy the Community Center.
6.2 Options for Organization
In persuasive writing, you need to gather information to support your opinions. Here
are some ways you can organize material to convince your audience.
Option 1: Reasons for Your Opinion
MODEL
Everyone should read "Waters of Gold." It teaches the importance of helping
others and not expecting a reward in return.
It offers a model of behavior in Auntie Lily, who expects nothing for her
kindness but is rewarded with a pail full of gold.
It makes an important moral point when a character is punished for
pretending to be kind when she is actually greedy.
In real life, you probably won't be given gold for doing something kind, but
reading the story will remind you of the value of good deeds.
WRITING TIP Effective support for your opinion is often organized from the weakest
argument to the strongest.
Depending on the purpose and form of your writing, you may want to show the
weaknesses of other opinions as you explain the strength of your own. Two
options for organizing writing that includes more than just your side of the issue
are shown below.
Option 2: Why Your Opinion Is Stronger
Your Opinion
Your Reasons
Other Options
Evidence refuting reasons for other opinion and showing strengths of your
opinion
WRITING TIP Start a persuasive piece with a question, a surprising fact, or an
anecdote to capture your readers' interest and make them want to keep reading.
The ending of a persuasive piece is often the part that sticks in a reader's mind.
Your conclusion might summarize the two sides of an issue, restate your
position, invite readers to make up their own minds, or call for some action.
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7 Research Report Writing
In research report writing, you can find answers to questions about a topic. You
may find new, unanswered questions. Your writing organizes your ideas,
questions, and information from various sources and presents it to your readers
as a unified and coherent whole.
RUBRIC STANDARDS FOR WRITING
A successful research report should
clearly state the purpose of the report in a thesis statement
use evidence and details from a variety of sources to support the thesis
contain only accurate and relevant information
document sources correctly
develop the topic logically and include appropriate transitions
include a properly formatted Works Cited list
7.1 Key Techniques
Formulate Relevant, Interesting, and Researchable Questions Asking
thoughtful questions will help you find an interesting, specific topic that you can
develop in a research report Begin by jotting down a list of basic questions
about your general topic. Focus on the who, what, where, when, and why of
your topic. If you were researching Eleanor Roosevelt, you might develop
questions like these.
MODEL
What were Eleanor Roosevelt's most important accomplishments?
What difficulties did she overcome?
When did she live? What were the most important events of that time?
As you become familiar with your topic, narrow your questions down to a single
question that will provide a sharp focus and make your readers think. Your
answer to this question will become the thesis statement of your research
report.
MODEL
How did Eleanor Roosevelt's activities change the perception of women's
roles in society?
Make sure that there are research sources available that can provide you
information to answer your question. If you cannot find sources, you need to
revise your question.
Clarify Your Thesis A thesis statement is one or two sentences clearly stating the
main idea that you will develop in your report. A thesis may also indicate the
organizational pattern you will follow and reflect your tone and point of view.
MODEL
Eleanor Roosevelt's active participation in political and social issues changed
the role of future first ladies and offered a new vision for the roles of
women in general.
Document Your Sources You need to document, or credit, the sources where you
find your evidence. In the example below, the writer uses and documents
information from a magazine article.
MODEL
Eleanor Roosevelt was tireless in her work. A joke in Washington was that
President Roosevelt prayed every night, "Dear God, please make Eleanor
a little tired" (Goodwin 41).
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Support Your Ideas You should support your ideas with relevant evidence—facts,
anecdotes, and statistics—from reliable sources. In the example below, the
writer includes a fact about how Eleanor Roosevelt helped women journalists.
MODEL
To encourage newspapers to hire women, Eleanor Roosevelt did not allow
men at her White House press conferences (Toor 63).
7.2 Finding and Evaluating Sources
Begin your research by looking for information about your topic in books,
magazines, newspapers, and computer databases. In addition to using your
library's card or computer catalog, look up your subject in indexes, such as the
Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature or the New York Times Index. The
bibliographies in books that you find during your research may also lead to
additional sources. The following checklist will help you evaluate the reliability
of the sources you find.
Checklist for Evaluating Your Sources
Authoritative
Someone who has written several books or articles on your subject or whose work
has been published in a well-respected newspaper or journal may be
considered an authority.
Up-to-date
Check the publication date to see if the source reflects the most current I research
on your subject.
Respected
In general, tabloid newspapers and popular-interest magazines are not reliable
sources. If you have questions about whether you are using a respected
source, ask your librarian.
7.3 Making Source Cards
For each source you find, record the bibliographic information on a separate index
card. You will need this information to give credit to the sources in your paper.
The samples at the right show how to make source cards for encyclopedia
entries, magazine articles, and books. You will use the source number on each
card to identify the notes you take during your research.
---see samples
7.4 Taking Notes
As you find material that suits the purpose of your report, record each piece of
information on a separate note card. You will probably use all three of the notetaking methods listed below.
---see samples
Paraphrase, or restate in your own words, the main ideas and supporting
details of the passage.
Summarize, or rephrase in fewer words, the original materials, trying to capture
the key ideas.
Quote, or copy word for word, the original text, if you think the author's own
words best clarify a particular point. Use quotation marks
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to signal the beginning and the end of the quotation.
For more details on making source cards and taking notes, see the Research
Report Workshop on pages 780-786.
7.5 Writing a Thesis Statement
A thesis statement in a research report defines the main idea, or overall purpose, of
your report. A clear, one-sentence answer to your main question will result in a
good thesis statement.
Question What did Eleanor Roosevelt do that made her such an important first lady
in American history?
Thesis Statement Eleanor Roosevelt's active participation in political and social
issues changed the role of future first ladies and offered a new vision for the
roles of women in general.
7.6 Making an Outline
To organize your report, group your note cards by main ideas and arrange them in
a logical order. Using your notes, make a topic outline, beginning with a
shortened version of your thesis statement. Key ideas are listed after Roman
numerals, and subpoints are listed after capital letters and Arabic numerals.
7.7 Documenting Your Sources
When you quote one of your sources or rewrite in your own words information you
have found in a source, you need to credit that source, using parenthetical
documentation.
Guidelines for Parenthetical Documentation
Work by One Author
Put the author's last name and, if appropriate, the page reference in parentheses:
(Toor 29).
If you mention the author's name in the sentence, put only the page [reference in
parentheses: (29).
Work by Two or Three Authors
Put the last names of the authors and the page reference in parentheses: (Ennis
and Ennis 24).
No Author Given
Give the title or a shortened version and the page reference: ("Roosevelt" 172).
Works by Same Author
Give the author's last name, the title or a shortened version, and the page
reference: (Roosevelt, This I Remember! 59).
WRITING TIP Presenting someone else's writing or ideas as your own is
plagiarism. To avoid plagiarism, you need to credit sources as noted. However,
if a piece of information is common knowledge—available in several sources—
you do not need to credit the source. To see an example of parenthetical
documentation, see the report on page 781.
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7.8 Creating a Works Cited List
Print Sources
At the end of your research report, you need to include a Works Cited list. Any
source that you have cited in your report needs to be listed alphabetically by the
author's last name. If no author is given, use the editor's name or the title of the
work. Note the guidelines for spacing and punctuation in the model list.
Electronic Sources
As well as print sources, you need to identify electronic sources, such as CD-ROMs
or Internet databases, in your Works Cited list. If you read or print out an article
on the Internet, document it as shown here. Electronic sources
---see samples
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should be included in the Works Cited list with print sources.
Internet Databases Works Cited entries for Internet databases include the same
kind of information as entries for print sources. Additionally, you need to include
the date you accessed the information and the electronic address of the source.
Some of the information about the source may be unavailable. Include as much
as you can. For more information on how to write Works Cited entries for
Internet sources, see the MLA guidelines posted on the McDougal Littell Web
site.
INTERNET Style Guidelines
www.mcdougallittell.corn
CD-ROMs Entries for CD-ROMs include the publication medium (CD-ROM), the
distributor, and the date of publication. Some of the information shown may not
always be available. Include as much as you can.
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8 Model Bank
8.1 Summary
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful summary should
1 accurately restate in your own words the main ideas of the work you are
summarizing
2 begin with your restatement of the main idea of the whole work
3 contain restatements of the main supporting ideas of the work
4 omit all unimportant details, no matter how interesting
5 be shorter than the original work
Model 1: Summary
700-Word Summary of A Christmas Carol
by Richard Marsden
A Christmas Carol is a play about the change of the wealthy Ebenezer Scrooge
from stinginess to generosity. The play begins on the day of Christmas Eve in
Victorian London, England, where there is much poverty. Scrooge, however,
has no mercy for others and dislikes Christmas. Bob Cratchit, an underpaid
clerk working for Scrooge, knows better than to expect any kindness from his
employer. Fred, Scrooge's nephew, comes by to give his uncle some Christmas
cheer, but Scrooge responds to him with bitterness. He responds the same way
when a visitor arrives seeking Christmas donations.
Scrooge continues to complain about Christmas when he returns home that
evening. After he goes into his bedroom, he is visited by the spirit of Jacob
Marley. Marley was Scrooge's business partner. He died seven years earlier on
Christmas Eve. His ghost
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returns to show Scrooge the heavy chains he must carry. They are the result of
the mean ways in which he acted toward people while he was alive. Marley's
spirit warns Scrooge that he will have to carry heavier chains than these if he
does not change his life.
In order for Scrooge to change, however, he needs more persuasion. After the
ghost of Jacob Marley, three more spirits visit Scrooge: the Spirit of Christmas
Past, the Spirit of Christmas Present, and the Spirit of Christmas Yet to Come.
The Spirit of Christmas Past arrives as the clock strikes one. He takes Scrooge to a
scene at a boarding school, where one by one the boys are leaving for
Christmas break. Scrooge sees himself there at an early age, playing with a
stuffed bear. The other boys are happy to be going home and celebrating
Christmas. But Scrooge is not going home for Christmas. It is possible that this
sadness he felt as a young boy is one of the reasons Scrooge grew to hate
Christmas.
The spirit then takes Scrooge to a scene where he is a young adult. It is the time
that Scrooge rejected his sweetheart because she did not have any money to
bring to their marriage. The Spirit of Christmas Past makes it plain that Scrooge
might have had a much different and happier life if he hadn't been so worried
about money.
The Spirit of Christmas Present arrives next, and takes Scrooge to the Cratchit
household. Scrooge thinks their house is not far away, but the spirit informs him
that it is an entire world away from Scrooge's house. A funeral procession
passes as they descend into the poor section of the city. At the Cratchit's,
Scrooge sees Tiny Tim. The boy is his parents' joy. Scrooge also sees that the
boy is deathly ill. Scrooge wants to help Tiny Tim, but the spirit repeats the cold,
heartless words that Scrooge spoke
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that afternoon about the deaths decreasing the surplus population. He reminds
Scrooge of his opinion that the poor have more than enough help. They can
fend for themselves.
When the Spirit of Christmas Yet to Come arrives, Scrooge is not ready for what he
sees. He expects this spirit to talk to him like the others did. But the dark form is
silent, cloaked, and hidden. His behavior creates a sense of death. First, the
spirit takes Scrooge to a time immediately after his own death. Scrooge is
shocked at the behavior of his servants. They show no loyalty to him as they
plunder his house, stealing anything of value. They never liked their employer
and don't respect him after he has died.
Next the spirit takes him to the Cratchit house, where another death has occurred—
the death of Tiny Tim. Scrooge watches the Cratchit family struggle to cope with
their grief. He is surprised to learn that his nephew, Fred, has offered them his
services. It is an act that Scrooge secretly wishes he had done before it was too
late.
The four spirits teach Scrooge a hard lesson about charity. He knows that if he does
not change his ways, people will not be sorry when he dies. Terrified by that
prospect, and now genuinely concerned for others, Scrooge wakes up the next
day overjoyed that he still has time to change his life. He realizes that he has
another chance to become a better person.
Immediately, he begins improving his ways. After buying a Christmas goose for the
Cratchits, he sets out to Fred's house brimming with Christmas cheer. Scrooge
has changed completely, providing a merry holiday for the Cratchits and
everyone else, including himself.
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8.2 Book Review
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful book review should
1 have an introduction that gives the title of the work, its author, and perhaps
some information about the author
2 summarize the work without giving away the ending
3 if the work is fiction, discuss the plot, setting, and important characters
4 explain why you admire or dislike the work, supporting your reactions with
examples from the work
5 conclude with a restatement of your opinion of the book or a
recommendation to other readers
The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle
Reviewed by Sheila Ashford
Have you ever taken a trip by yourself? Were you excited? Scared? The True
Confessions of Charlotte Doyle by Avi tells the story of a thirteen-year-old girl
who sails aboard a ship called the Seahawk from Liverpool, England, to
Providence, Rhode Island, in the summer of 1832. As she prepares for the trip,
Charlotte looks forward to what she thinks will be a great adventure. But the
adventure turns out to be far more exciting—and far more dangerous—than
Charlotte ever imagined. The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle tells the
gripping story of how a young girl must face mutiny, murder, and the possibility
of her own death.
Almost as soon as she boards the Seahawk, Charlotte senses that something is
wrong. She is befriended by an old, black sailor named Zacharia who tells her
that the captain of the Seahawk, Captain Jaggery, is a particularly cruel man
and not to be trusted. Charlotte goes to Captain Jaggery and tells him that she
wants to return to England but the captain flatters Charlotte by telling her that
she will be a positive influence on the crew.
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As the story continues, the reader learns a lot about what it was like to sail in the
early 1800s. The novel describes how the sailors worked, what they ate, as well
as what was involved in operating the ship, keeping watch, and making repairs.
Charlotte is fascinated by the crew's work and especially impressed with how
Captain Jaggery runs things. So impressed, that when she finds out about a
plot against him, she tells the captain. Angered by what Charlotte tells him, the
captain orders all hands on deck.
From that moment on, Charlotte discovers more and more the true, cruel nature of
Captain Jaggery. As an "example," he orders the flogging of Charlotte's friend
Zacharia. Shortly thereafter, Charlotte sees a canvas bag that was used to bury
sailors in the sea being dumped overboard and she is told that it contains the
body of her old friend. Blaming herself, Charlotte joins the crew, asking for no
special treatment because she is a girl. Instead, she receives especially cruel
treatment from the captain.
Captain Jaggery sails the ship into a hurricane. Avi describes the storm with lots of
convincing detail, especially when he shows what the crew had to go through to
save the ship. Jaggery drives the crew mercilessly but he saves the worst
treatment for Charlotte. When the ship's second in command, a man who
helped the captain beat Zacharia, is found dead, Jaggery accuses Charlotte of
murder, orders her trial, and finds her guilty. It is only through some unexpected
help that Charlotte's story does not end here.
The True Confessions of Charlotte Doyle is a great adventure novel that held my
interest from first page to last. It shows how cruel people can be, but it shows
how brave people can be too. We might not want to take the kind of trip that
Charlotte Doyle did, but we can read her story and feel like we are right on
board!
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8.3 Friendly Letter
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful friendly letter should
1 begin with a heading that contains your street address, town or city, state
and ZIP code, and the date you write the letter
2 have a salutation that begins with a capital letter and is followed by a comma
3 have a body that is written in an informal, conversational tone
4 have a closing that begins with a capital letter and is followed by a comma
5 end with your signature under the closing
Model 3: Friendly Letter
603 Pine Street
Alton, Pennsylvania
18406
August 7, 2000
Dear Jose,
I enjoyed your last letter so much that I had to hurry and answer it. How did
you learn to ride a horse so quickly? In the photo you sent me, you look
very impressive up there in the saddle. Do you ride in shows or just for
fun? Wish me luck when I learn to ride!
Write and tell me more about your wilderness ride. Say "hi" to your family for
me.
Your friend,
Beth
8.4 Email
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful email should
1 have the exact email address of the person you are writing to in the "To:" line
2 state the subject of the email in the "Subject" line
3 have a body that is written in an informal, conversational tone
4 close with your name
5 end with your exact email address after your name
Tips on "Netiquette"
Always end your messages with your name and email address.
Always include a subject heading.
Take as much care with spelling and punctuation as you would in a friendly
letter.
Don't write in all capitals because it looks as if you are shouting.
Model 4: Friendly Email
To: [email protected]
cc:
bcc:
Subject: Wilderness Rides
I'm back from my wilderness ride and it was great. I rode with a guide, seven other
kids about my age, and two pack horses. The ride lasted one week. Except for
the one afternoon when it rained, the weather was nice. I had such a great time,
I would recommend the wilderness ride to anybody who likes to see nature
close up.
José Salazar
[email protected]
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8.5 Persuasive Essay
BASICS IN A BOX
A successful persuasive essay should
1 open with a dramatic statement of the issue and your opinion
2 address the audience you are trying to persuade
3 provide facts, examples, and reasons to support your opinion
4 answer opposing views
5 show clear reasoning
6 include strategies such as summaries to help readers remember your
message
7 end with a strong position statement or call to action
See page R100 for tips on delivering your persuasive presentation orally.
Persuasive Essay at a Glance
Introduction
present the issue dramatically
Body
address target audience
facts
examples
reasons
Conclusion
summary and call to action
Model 5: Persuasive Essay
Important Hours
by Gina Maraini
"The Golden Years." That is what some people call old age. They think it is a time
of peace and relaxation. But many old people spend time alone. Some cannot
get out of their homes because of illness. "What can I do?" you ask. More than
you think. Even spending an hour a week can mean a lot to an older person
who lives alone.
Some kids might say that they can only do good for an older person if they have lots
of time and lots of patience. It's easy to talk yourself out of volunteering your
time by saying, "I only have an hour a week. What good would that do?" Never
underestimate just how much good you can do even in a little bit of time.
Sometimes things happen that seem unimportant to a kid but can really be a
problem to an old person. If a small object like a pen or pencil slides under
furniture, an older person often is not able to stoop down and pick it up. But
they feel embarrassed to ask for help. So, the pen stays there. Sometimes it
gets forgotten about and becomes lost. You can help that older person find
these things. And by helping, you are reminding that person that he or she is
not forgotten about either.
Sometimes it is hard for an older person to reach up high. Putting things away, like
groceries, becomes a problem. Often the older person gets tired and gives up.
You can help to put groceries and other heavy objects away. And by doing that,
you are helping that older person feel like he or she can still keep up with life's
challenges.
One of the most important things you can do for a senior citizen who lives alone is
to give that person someone to talk to. Old people, who have lived long lives
and had many
experiences, have stories to tell that you can learn a lot from. And it is important for
you to say so, too. That way, you can show the older person that he or she is
contributing to your life.
But you can make a real contribution to an older person's life, too. Even if you only
have an hour to spend, you can help an older person feel cared about and
important. Find ways to reach out, whether through volunteer organizations or
just by being aware of who is alone in your neighborhood. And always
remember: as much as you give, you get back so much more, simply by
knowing the difference that you have made.
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Grammar Handbook
1 Quick Reference: Parts of Speech
Noun
Names a person, place, thing, idea, quality, or action.
Theseus, Greece, boat, freedom, joy, sailing
Pronoun
Takes the place of a noun or another pronoun.
Personal
Refers to the one speaking, spoken to, or spoken about.
I, me, my, mine, we, us, our, ours, you your, yours, she, he, it, her, him, hers, his,
its, they, them, their, theirs
Reflexive
Follows a verb or preposition and refers to a preceding noun or pronoun.
myself, yourself, herself, himself, itself, ourselves, yourselves, themselves
Intensive
Emphasizes a noun or another pronoun.
(Same as reflexives)
Demonstrative
Points to specific persons or things.
this, that, these, those
Interrogative
Signals questions.
who, whom, whose, which, what
Indefinite
Refers to person(s) or thing(s) not specifically mentioned.
both, all, most, many, anyone, everybody, several, none, some
Relative
Introduces subordinate clauses and relates them to words in the main clause.
who, whom, whose, which, that
Verb
Expresses action, condition, or state of being.
Action
Tells what the subject does or did, physically or mentally.
run, reaches, listened, consider, decides, dreamt
Linking
Connects subjects to that which identifies or describes them.
am, is, are, was, were, sound, taste, appear, feel, become, remain, seem
Auxiliary
Precedes and introduces main verbs.
be, have, do, can, could, will, would, may, might
Adjective
Modifies nouns or pronouns.
strong women, two epics, enough time
Adverb
Modifies verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
walked out, really funny, far away
Preposition
Relates one word to another (following) word.
at, by, for, from, in, of, on, to, with
Conjunction
Joins words or word groups.
Coordinating
Joins words or word groups used the same way.
and, but, or, for, so, yet, nor
Correlative
Join words or word groups used the same way and are used in pairs.
both ... and, either or, neither ... nor
Subordinating
Joins word groups not used the same way.
although, after, as, before, because, when, if, unless
Interjection
Expresses emotion.
wow, ouch, hurrah
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2 Quick Reference: The Sentence and Its Parts
The diagrams that follow will give you a brief review of the essentials of the
sentence-subjects and predicates-and of some of its parts.
The speaker's pockets bulged with oranges.
The complete subject includes all the words that identify the person, place, thing,
or idea that the sentence is about.
The simple subject tells exactly whom or what the sentence is about. It may be
one word or a group of words, but it does not include modifiers.
The complete predicate includes all the words that tell or ask something about the
subject.
The simple predicate, or verb, tells what the subject does or is. It may be one word
or several, but it does not include modifiers.
At the drug store, an understanding clerk had given the speaker a chocolate bar.
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and any modifiers of
the object. In this phrase, at is the preposition and drug store is its object.
subject
Verbs often have more than one part. They may be made up of a main verb, like
given, and one or more auxiliary, or helping verbs, like had.
A is a direct object is a word or group of words that tells who or what receives the
action of the verb in the sentence.
An indirect object is a word or group of words that tells to whom or for whom or to
what or for what about the verb. A sentence can have an indirect object only if it
has a direct object. The indirect object always comes before the direct object in
a sentence.
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3 Quick Reference: Punctuation
End Marks period, question mark, exclamation point
to end sentences
We can start now.
When would you like to leave?
What a fantastic hit!
initials and other abbreviations
Mrs. Dorothy Parker, C. P. Cavafy, McDougal Litton Inc., P.M., A.D., lbs., oz., Blvd.,
Dr.
items in outlines
I. Volcanoes
A. Central-vent
1. Shield
exception: post office abbreviations
NE (Nebraska), NV (Nevada)
Commas
before conjunction in compound sentence
I have never disliked poetry, but now I really love it.
items in a series
She is brave, loyal, and kind.
The slow, easy route is best.
words of address
Maria, how can I help you?
You must do something, soldier.
parenthetical expressions
Well, just suppose that we can't?
Hard workers, as you know, don't quit.
I'm not a quitter, believe me.
introductory phrases and dependent clauses
In the beginning of the day, I feel fresh.
Having finished my chores, I went out.
While she was out, I was here.
nonessential phrases and clauses
Ed Pawn, captain of the chess team, won.
Ed Pawn, who is the captain, won.
The two leading runners, sprinting toward the finish line, finished in a tie.
in dates and addresses
September 21, 2001. Mail it by May 14, 2000, to Hauptman Company, 321 Market
Street, Memphis, Tennessee.
in letter parts
Dear Jim, Sincerely yours,
for clarity or to avoid confusion
By noon, time had run out.
What the minister does, does matter.
While cooking, Jim burned his hand.
Semicolons
in compound sentences that are not joined by coordinators and, etc.
The last shall be first; the first shall be last.
I read the Bible; however, I have not memorized it.
with items in series that contain commas
We invited my sister, Jan; her friend, Don; my uncle Jack; and Mary Dodd.
in compound sentences that contain commas
After I ran out of money, I called my parents; but only my sister was home,
unfortunately.
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Colons
to introduce lists
Correct: Those we wrote were the following: Dana, John, and Will.
Incorrect: Those we wrote were: Dana, John, and Will.
before a long quotation
Abraham Lincoln wrote: "Four score and seven years ago, our fathers brought forth
on this continent a new nation...."
after the salutation of a business letter
To Whom It May Concern:
Dear Leonard Atole:
with certain numbers
1:28 P.M., Genesis: 2-5
Dashes
to indicate an abrupt break in thought
I was thinking of my mother—who is arriving tomorrow—just as you walked in.
Parentheses
to enclose less important material
It was so unlike him (John is always on time) that I began to worry.
Brackets
to enclose editorial explanation in quoted material
They [the Glenview Cardinals] came to play, but we were prepared."
Hyphens
with a compound adjective before nouns
The not-so-rich taxpayer won't stand for this!
in compounds with all-, ex-, self-, -elect
The ex-firefighter helped rescue him.
Our president-elect is self-conscious.
in compound numbers (to ninety-nine)
Today, I turn twenty-one.
in fractions used as adjectives
My cup is one-third full.
between prefixes and words beginning with capital letters
Which pre-Raphaelite painter do you like best?
It snowed in mid-October.
when dividing words at the end of a line
How could you have any reasonable expectations of getting a new computer?
Apostrophes
to form possessives of nouns and indefinite pronouns
my friend's book, my friends' book,
anyone's guess, somebody else's problem
for omitted letters in numbers/contractions
don't (omitted o); he'd (omitted woul) the class of '99 (omitted 19)
to form plurals of letters and numbers
I had two A's and no 2's on my report card.
Quotation Marks
to set off a speaker's exact words
Sara said, "I'm finally ready." "I'm ready," Sara said, "finally." Did Sara say, "I'm
ready"? Sara said, "I'm ready!"
for titles of stories, short poems, essays, songs, book chapters
I liked Paulsen's "Dirk the Protector" and Roethke's "The Bat."
I like Joplin's "Me and Bobby McGee."
Ellipses
for material omitted from a quotation
"When in the course of human events . . . and to assume among the powers of the
earth. . . ."
Italics
for titles of books, plays, magazines, long poems, operas, films, TV series, names
of ships
The House on Mango Street, Hamlet, Newsweek, The Odyssey, Madame Butterfly,
Gone with the Wind, Seinfeld, Titanic
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People and Titles
Names and initials of people
Gish Jen, J. Frank Dobie
Ttles with names
Professor Holmes, Senator Long
Deities and members of religious groups
Jesus, Allah, the Buddha, Zeus, Baptists, Roman Catholics
Names of ethnic and national groups
Hispanics, Jews, African Americans
Geographical Names
Cities, states, countries, continents
Philadelphia, Kansas, Japan, Europe
Regions, bodies of water, mountains
the South, Lake Baykal, Mount McKinley
Geographic features, parks
Great Basin, Yellowstone National Park
Streets and roads, planets
318 East Sutton Drive, Charles Court, Jupiter, Pluto
Organizations and Events
Companies, organizations, teams
Ford Motor Company, Boy Scouts of America, St. Louis Cardinals
Buildings, bridges, monuments
Empire State Building, Eads Bridge, Washington Monument
Documents, awards
the Declaration of Independence, Stanley Cup
Special named events
Mardi Gras, World Series
Governmental bodies, historical periods and events
U.S. Senate, House of Representatives, Middle Ages, Vietnam War
Days and months, holidays
Thursday, March, Thanksgiving, Labor Day
Specific cars, boats, trains, planes
Porsche, Mississippi Queen, Orient Express, Concorde
Proper Adjectives
Adjectives formed from proper nouns
French cooking, Freudian psychology, Edwardian age, Atlantic coast
First Words and the Pronoun I
The first word in a sentence or quotation
This is it. He said, "Let's go."
Complete sentence in parentheses
(Consult the previous chapter.)
Salutation and closing of letters
Dear Madam, Very truly yours,
First lines of most poetry
Then am I
The personal pronoun I
A happy fly
If I live
Or if I die.
First, last, and all important words in titles
A Tale of Two Cities, "The World Is Not a Pleasant Place to Be"
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5 Writing CompleteSentences
5.1 Sentence Fragments A sentence fragment is a group of words that does not
express a complete thought. It may be missing a subject, a predicate, or both. A
sentence fragment makes you wonder What is this about? or What happened?
Missing Subject or Predicate You can correct a sentence fragment by adding the
missing subject or predicate to complete the thought.
INCORRECT: The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street is a spooky tale. Tells about
ordinary neighbors turning into a mob. Fearful people.
CORRECT: The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street is a spooky tale that tells about
ordinary neighbors turning into a mob of fearful people.
Phrase and Subordinate-Clause Fragments When the fragment is a phrase or a
subordinate clause, you may join the fragment to an existing sentence.
INCORRECT: Under normal circumstances. The conflicts neighbors have with one
another are easy to ignore. However, these unresolved problems can suddenly
become huge. When a crisis threatens.
CORRECT: Under normal circumstances, the conflicts neighbors have are easy to
ignore. However, these unresolved problems can suddenly become huge when
a crisis threatens.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite this paragraph, correcting the sentence fragments.
(1) In The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street (2) Normal social bonds were broken.
(3) The small amount of community feeling that existed on Maple Street. (4)
Was quickly destroyed. (5) A sense of community is necessary. (6) If people are
to live together safely and happily. (7) The earliest human communities came
into being. (8) When the need for safety arose. (9) Neighbors in a community.
(10) Give one another practical and emotional support. (11) They work to
resolve. (12) Problems among members rather than ignoring conflict. (13) Even
neighbors who live close together. (14) Do not necessarily share similar values.
(15) Is essential in building a strong, stable community. (16) A true community.
(17) Might have been able to stand up to the outside threat posed in this
teleplay. (18) Without community Maple Street.
5.2 Run-on Sentences A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences
written incorrectly as one. A run-on sentence occurs because the writer either
used no end mark or used a comma instead of a period to end the first
complete thought. A run-on sentence may confuse readers because it does not
show where one thought ends and the next begins.
Forming Separate Sentences One way to correct a run-on sentence is to form two
separate sentences. Use a period or other end punctuation after the first
sentence, and capitalize the first letter of the next sentence.
INCORRECT: In 'A Crown of Wild Olive," Amyntas and Leon meet at the Olympic
Games they are suspicious of each other because their countries are at war
their rooms at Olympia are near each other. CORRECT: In "A Crown of Wild
Olive," Amyntas and Leon meet at the Olympic Games. They are suspicious of
each other because their countries are at war. Their rooms at Olympia are near
each other.
Forming Compound Sentences You can also correct a run-on sentence by
rewriting it to form a compound sentence. One way to do this is by using a
comma and a coordinating conjunction.
Never join simple sentences with a comma alone, or a run-on sentence will result.
You need a comma followed by a conjunction
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such as and, but, or or to hold the sentences together.
INCORRECT: Leon cut his foot on the sickle, Amyntas helped clean the wound.
CORRECT: Leon cut his foot on the sickle, and Amyntas helped clean the wound.
You may use a semicolon to join two ideas that are closely related.
In addition, you can correct a run-on sentence by using a semicolon and a
conjunctive adverb. Commonly used conjunctive adverbs are however,
therefore, nevertheless, and besides.
INCORRECT: Amyntas spent his money on the bronze bull he left it as an offering.
He did not want to be happy that Leon was hurt he still wanted to win.
CORRECT: Amyntas spent his money on the bronze bull; he left it as an offering.
He did not want to be happy that Leon was hurt; however, he still wanted to
win.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite this paragraph, correcting the run-on sentences.
(1) In "A Crown of Wild Olive" Athens and Sparta agree to a truce so they can take
part in the Olympic Games many ships from all over Greece sail safely to
Olympia. (2) This story reflects an actual tradition from those times. (3) All wars
had to stop for many reasons, first, the people wanted the games to be a time
of unity. (4) Often there were battles between the different cities, wars lasted
many years. (5) Second, Olympia was a religious center the games had
religious importance. (6) The Greeks worshiped Zeus there people visited from
all over the ancient world. (7) In the story, Amyntas spends time in the temple of
Zeus he leaves the bronze bull as an offering. (8) Afterward, the Athenians and
the Spartans leave Olympia everyone begins thinking about war again.
6 Making Subjects and Verbs Agree
6.1 Simple and Compound Subjects A verb must agree in number with its
subject. Number refers to whether a word is singular or plural. When a word
refers to one thing, it is singular. When a word refers to more than one thing, it
is plural.
Agreement with Simple Subjects Use a singular verb with a singular subject.
When the subject is a singular noun, you use the singular form of the verb. The
present-tense singular form of a regular verb usually ends in -s or -es.
INCORRECT: In "Seventh Grade" Victor sign up for French class on the first day of
school. A girl he like enrolls in the same class.
CORRECT: In "Seventh Grade" Victor signs up for French class on the first day of
school. A girl he likes enrolls in the same class.
USAGE TIP To find the subject of a sentence, first find the verb. Then ask who or
what performs the action of the verb. Say the subject and the verb together to
see if they agree.
Use a plural verb with a plural subject.
INCORRECT: Girls pays attention when Victor's friend Michael scowls at them.
CORRECT: Girls pay attention when Victor's friend Michael scowls at them.
Agreement with Compound Subjects Use a plural verb with a compound subject
whose parts are joined by and, regardless of the number of each part.
EXAMPLE: Victor and Teresa talk after their French class with Mr. Bueller.
When the parts of a compound subject are joined by or or nor, make the verb agree
in number with the part that is closer to it.
Usually or and nor appear with their correlatives either and neither.
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INCORRECT: Mr. Bueller asks whether Victor or the other students speaks any
French. Neither Victor nor Teresa respond at first.
CORRECT: Mr. Bueller asks whether Victor or the other students speak any
French. Neither Victor nor Teresa responds at first.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct form of the verb given in parentheses.
1. In the story "Seventh Grade," Gary Soto (describe, describes) Victor's first day of
school.
2. Victor (selects, select) French as his one elective.
3. According to a fashion magazine Michael read, men should (scowls, scowl).
4. Michael's upper lip (quivers, quiver) as he walks down the halls.
5. Neither the girls nor Victor (think, thinks) that Michael's scowl will really work.
6. Fashion magazines (consists, consist) of many advertisements with models in
them.
7. In homeroom, Victor and Teresa (sits, sit) two rows away from each other.
8. Some girls (laugh, laughs) when he answers in English class.
9. The math problems in his book (scare, scares) him.
10. In French class, only the teacher (know, knows) that Victor's answer is
gibberish.
6.2 Pronoun Subjects When a pronoun is used as a subject, the verb must agree
with it in number.
Agreement with Personal Pronouns When the subject is a singular personal
pronoun, use a singular verb. When the subject is a plural personal pronoun,
use a plural verb.
Even though I and you are singular, they take the plural form of the verb.
INCORRECT: In 'Zebra" Adam watches as the others play at recess. He are not
able to play because of his accident.
CORRECT: In 'Zebra" Adam watches as the others play at recess. He is not able to
play because of his accident.
When he, she, or it is the part of the subject closer to the verb in a compound
subject containing or or nor, use a singular verb. When a pronoun is a part of a
compound subject containing and, use a plural verb.
INCORRECT: When Adam and the other students takes the summer art class,
neither they nor he ignore John Wilson as he begins to teach them about art.
CORRECT: When Adam and the other students take the summer art class, neither
they nor he ignores John Wilson as he begins to teach them about art.
Agreement with Indefinite Pronouns When the subject is a singular indefinite
pronoun, use the singular form of the verb.
The following are singular indefinite pronouns: another, either, nobody, anybody,
everybody, somebody, no one, anyone, everyone, someone, one, nothing,
anything, everything, something, each, and neither.
EXAMPLE: In Adam's class with Mrs. English, everybody listens to the stories.
When the subject is a plural indefinite pronoun (both, few, many, or several), use
the plural form of the verb.
EXAMPLES: Few draw well at first. Many need a lot of practice.
The indefinite pronouns some, all, any, none, and most can be either singular or
plural. When the pronoun refers to one thing, use a singular verb.
When the pronoun refers to several things, use a plural verb.
EXAMPLES: Some believe that the United States should not have gone to
Vietnam, but John Wilson does not give his opinion in the story. All of his
energy goes into making art.
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GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct form of the verb given in parentheses.
1. In "Zebra" one (learn, learns) how John Wilson and Adam become friends.
2. John (tell, tells) Adam that he has an idea for a summer art class.
3. Many of Adam's classmates (think, thinks) that the summer art class will be fun.
4. Some (go, goes) to camp during the summer months, while others just (hang,
hangs) around.
5. Anybody can learn how to draw, although some (have, has) a special talent for it.
6. Among psychologists, many (believe, believes) that making art is good therapy.
7. Andrea and Adam wonder if anybody else (want, wants) to take the class.
8. Both (take, takes) the summer art class.
9. A broken umbrella, an empty can, a doll— anything (qualify, qualifies) as material
for making sculptures.
10. All (are, is) able to be transformed into beautiful objects.
11. In many ways, Adam (seem, seems) to bond with his teacher.
12. Each of the students (leave, leaves) the class having learned something
special.
6.3 Common Agreement Problems Several other situations can cause problems
in subject-verb agreement.
Agreement with Irregular Verbs Use the singular forms of the irregular verbs do,
be, and have with singular subjects. Use the plural forms of these verbs with
plural subjects.
---see chart
WATCH OUT Look carefully at words that come before the subject. Remember that
the subject may not be the noun or pronoun closest to the verb.
INCORRECT: The selection "Eleanor Roosevelt" do much to show the struggle of a
dynamic first lady, and it have some insights into her success. Eleanor are a
splendid achiever; she have qualities that anyone can cultivate.
CORRECT: The selection "Eleanor Roosevelt" does much to show the struggle of a
dynamic first lady, and it has some insights into her success. Eleanor is a
splendid achiever; she has qualities that anyone can cultivate.
Interrupting Words Be sure the verb agrees with its subject when a word or words
come between them.
Sometimes one or more words come between the subject and the verb. The
interrupter does not affect the number of the subject.
INCORRECT: Eleanor, moreover, encourage the hiring of female reporters by
closing her press conferences to men.
CORRECT: Eleanor, moreover, encourages the hiring of female reporters by
closing her press conferences to men.
Interrupting Phrases Be certain that the verb agrees with its subject when a
phrase comes between them.
The subject of a verb is never found in a prepositional phrase, which may follow the
subject and come before the verb.
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INCORRECT: Eleanor, in spite of several tragedies in her life, triumph over
adversity. This woman of many talents rank high in the list of great Americans.
CORRECT: Eleanor, in spite of several tragedies in her life, triumphs over
adversity. This woman of many talents ranks high in the list of great Americans.
Phrases beginning with including, as well as, along with, and in addition to are not
part of the subject.
EXAMPLE: Her mother's coldness, as well as her father's alcoholism, creates a
challenging situation for a young child. Eleanor's strong will, along with her
other outstanding qualities, makes her a wonderful role model.
The subject of the verb is never found in an appositive, which may follow the
subject and come before the verb.
EXAMPLE: Eleanor, one of several self- trained diplomats, helps create the United
Nations after World War IL. Her assistants, a dedicated group, still sing her
praises.
Inverted Sentences When the subject comes after the verb, be sure the verb
agrees with the subject in number.
A sentence in which the subject follows the verb is called an inverted sentence.
Questions are usually in inverted form, as are sentences beginning with here,
there, and where. (Where are the reporters? There is a press conference
today)
EXAMPLE: Where does Eleanor find the courage to overcome her shyness? How
does she grow during her life? Do other first ladies follow her example? There
are many more questions we would like answered about the great lady,
Eleanor Roosevelt
USAGE TIP To check subject-verb agreement in inverted sentences, place the
subject before the verb. For example, to check agreement, change There are
many people to Many people are there.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct form of each verb given in parentheses.
1. Readers, while examining "Eleanor Roosevelt" (learn, learns) about the powerful
influence that a father can have on his daughter.
2. Eleanor's father, in spite of his faults, (seem, seems) to have helped her feel
unconditionally loved.
3. However, Eleanor's mother, in addition to the rest of the family, (was, were)
relatively cold to her and filled her with self-doubt.
4. There (was, were) a sort of second mother to Eleanor, who lived near London.
5. How (is, are) Eleanor's early years related to her later achievements?
6. Joseph Lash, one of her biographers, (note, notes) that her childhood loneliness
helped her understand people who felt left out.
7. Her heredity, as far as Eleanor was concerned, (appear, appears) to explain her
great energy.
8. Looking back, she calmly recalls, "I think I (have, has) a good deal of my uncle
Theodore in me...."
9. What do you think (was, were) her greatest achievement?
10. Presidential Wives, one of several books by Paul Boller, (remind, reminds) us of
the vitality of women like Eleanor.
7 Using Nouns and Pronouns
7.1 Plural and Possessive Nouns Nouns er to people, places, things, and ideas.
Nouns are plural when they refer to more than one person, place, thing, or idea.
Possessive nouns show who or what owns something.
Plural Nouns Follow these guidelines to form noun plurals.
---see chart
WATCH OUT! The plurals of many musical terms that end in o preceded by a
consonant are formed by adding -s. These nouns include tempos and
concertos.
Some nouns use the same spelling in both singular and plural: series, fish, sheep,
cannon. Some noun plurals use a form that doesn't follow any rule: teeth,
geese.
INCORRECT: In Knotes in My Yo-yo String, Jerry Spinelli writes about his fantasys
of perfection. Baseball, yo-yoes, drawing within the lines, and cleaning his
locker are a few of the activitys at which he tries to be perfect.
CORRECT: In Knots in My Yo-Yo String, Jerry Spinelli writes about his fantasies of
perfection. Baseball, yo-yos, drawing within the lines, and cleaning his locker
are a few of the activities at which he tries to be perfect.
Possessive Nouns Follow these guidelines to form possessive nouns.
---see chart
INCORRECT: Jerrys' drawing is never good enough to win the Times Herald
contest, even though the other children' drawings are messier. Neatness,
according to the newspapers' judges, isn't the only standard.
CORRECT: Jerry's drawing is never good enough to win the Times Herald contest,
even though the other children's drawings are messier. Neatness, according to
the newspaper's judges, isn't the only standard.
USAGE TIP The dictionary usually lists the plural form of a noun if the plural form is
irregular or if there is more than one plural form. Dictionary listings are
especially helpful for nouns that end in o, f, and, fe.
WATCH OUT! Be careful when placing apostrophes in possessive nouns. A
misplaced apostrophe changes the meaning. For example, boy's refers to
possession by one boy, but boys' refers to possession by two or more boys.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct noun given in parentheses.
(1)This story describes Jerry (Spinelli's, Spinellis') attempts at perfection. (2) He is a
fanatic about making sure his (colores, colors) do not go outside the lines. (3)
He takes few chances when playing (sports, sportes), because he does not
want to make an error. (4) After a game, he goes over the (plaies, plays) in his
mind so he can do better next time. (5) I'll bet if his mom asked him to peel
(potatos, potatoes), he would spend a week completing the task. (6)
Fortunately, he realizes that his imagination has no (boundarys, boundaries).
7.2 Pronoun Forms A personal pronoun is a pronoun that can be used in the first,
second, or third person. A personal pronoun has three forms: the subject form,
the object form, and the possessive form.
Subject Pronouns Use the subject form when the pronoun is the subject of a
sentence or clause. I, you, he, she, it we, and they are subject pronouns.
Using the correct pronoun form is seldom a problem when the sentence has just
one pronoun. Problems can arise, however, when a noun and a pronoun or two
pronouns are used in a compound subject or compound object. To see if you
are using the correct pronoun form, read the sentence, using only one pronoun.
INCORRECT: A Christmas Carol tells the familiar tale of Scrooge. Him and the
three Spirits of Christmas are the main characters.
CORRECT: A Christmas Carol tells the familiar tale of Scrooge. He and the three
Spirits of Christmas are the main characters.
Use the subject form when the pronoun follows a linking verb.
You often hear the object form used as a predicate pronoun ("It is him"). For this
reason, the subject form may sound awkward to you, though it is preferred in
more formal writing.
INCORRECT: The Spirits showed Scrooge his future, but it was him who decided to
change.
CORRECT: The Spirits showed Scrooge his future, but it was he who decided to
change.
USAGE TIP To check the form of a predicate pronoun, see if the sentence still
makes sense when the subject and the predicate pronoun are reversed. (It was
he. He was it.)
Object Pronouns Use the object form when the pronoun is the object in a clause,
sentence, or of a preposition. Me, you, him, her, it us, and them are object
pronouns.
EXAMPLE: Scrooge's Christmas Eve changed him. His new approach to the
Cratchit family worked wonders for them.
Possessive Pronouns Never use an apostrophe in a possessive pronoun. My,
mine, your, yours, his, her, hers, its, our, ours, their, and theirs are possessive
pronouns.
Writers may confuse the possessive pronouns its, your, and their with the
contractions it's, you're, and they're. Remember that the pairs are spelled
differently and have different meanings.
INCORRECT: Scrooge thanked the Spirits for they're help. On Christmas morning,
he sent a turkey to the Crotchets. To him, it's price was small for the joy it gave.
CORRECT: Scrooge thanked the Spirits for their help. On Christmas morning, he
sent a turkey to the Cratchits. To him, its price was small for the joy it gave.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct pronoun form given in parentheses.
(1) Charles Dickens wrote A Christmas Carol in 1843, when (he, him) was 31 years
old. (2) This work of (him, his) was written in only a few weeks. (3) In 1836 he
was a famous writer; that year (he, him) and Catherine Hogarth were married.
(4) (He, Him) was famous enough to tour America in 1842. (5) Did you know
that it was (him, he) who wrote other novels about Christmas? (6) All of (they're,
their) dates of composition are from the 1840s. (7) (They, Them) include the
rest of the books mentioned here, such as The Chimes, published in 1844. (8)
The next year saw another Christmas book of (his, him), The Cricket on the
Hearth. (9) The year following, The Battle of Life took (it's, its)
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place among his titles. (10) Finally, The Haunted Man, an 1848 effort, was (him,
his). (11) These books are said to be part of the first phase of (his', his) works.
(12) (Them, They) have rather serious themes mixed with some humor. (13)
When Thackeray, a fellow writer, reviewed A Christmas Carol, he said that (its,
it's) publication was a national benefit.
7.3 Pronoun Antecedents An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a
personal pronoun refers. The antecedent usually precedes the pronoun.
Pronoun and Antecedent Agreement A pronoun must agree with its antecedent
in
NUMBER—singular or plural
PERSON—first second, or third
GENDER—male or female
Use a singular pronoun to refer to a singular antecedent; use a plural pronoun to
refer to a plural antecedent.
Do not allow interrupting words to determine the number of the personal pronoun.
INCORRECT: In "Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed," Harry did not let his initial
feeling of dread and panic influence him. Instead, he ignored them and settled
with his family on Mars.
CORRECT: In "Dark They Were, and Golden- Eyed" Harry did not let his initial
feeling of dread and panic influence him. Instead, he ignored it and settled with
his family on Mars.
If the antecedent is a noun that could be either male or female, use he or she (him
or her, his or her) or reword the sentence to avoid the need for a singular
pronoun.
EXAMPLES: Each one of the colonists on Mars began to change, and he or she
did not realize that anything odd was happening.
OR
All of the colonists on Mars began to change, and they did not realize that anything
odd was happening.
Be sure that the antecedent of a pronoun is clear.
In most cases, do not use a pronoun to refer to an entire idea or clause. Writing is
much clearer when the exact reference is repeated.
INCORRECT: Harry's worries centered on his fear that he would change like the
others. They are hard to ignore because everyone is beginning to look different.
CORRECT: Harry's worries centered on his fear that he would change like the
others. His worries are hard to ignore because everyone is beginning to look
different.
INCORRECT: As Sam is talking to Harry outside of the store, he learns that his
eyes are turning yellow. This is a major turning point in the story. He realizes
that he cannot resist change.
CORRECT: As Sam is talking to Harry outside of the store, Harry learns that his
eyes are turning yellow. This is a major turning point in the story. Harry realizes
that he cannot resist change.
USAGE TIP, To avoid vague pronoun reference, do not use this or that alone to
start a clause. Instead, include a word that clarifies what this or that refers to—
this experience, this situation, that concept.
Indefinite Pronouns as Antecedents When a singular indefinite pronoun
referring to a person is the antecedent, use he or she (him or her, his or her) or
rewrite the sentence to avoid the need for a singular pronoun.
INCORRECT: Everyone on Mars was beginning to undergo changes in their
appearance without realizing it.
CORRECT: Everyone on Mars was beginning to undergo changes in his or her
appearance without realizing it.
OR
CORRECT: All the colonists on Mars were beginning to undergo changes in their
appearance without realizing it.
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Indefinite Pronouns
Singular
another
anybody
anyone
anything
each
either
everybody
everyone
everything
neither
nobody
no one
nothing
one
somebody
someone
something
Plural
both
few
many
several
Singular or Plural
all
any
most
none
some
WATCH OUT! Avoid the indefinite use of you and they.
INCORRECT: At home they used Martian words.
CORRECT: At home family members used Martian words.
INCORRECT: Joe thought you should always thank them.
CORRECT: Joe thought a person should always thank his or her friends.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite this paragraph to make the pronoun reference clear.
(1) In "Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed" a war on Earth eliminates their chance
of returning home. (2) When they hear the news, they feel hopeless. (3)
Nobody knows what they will do. (4) At first everything is fine, but it changes
when Harry sees that the plants are growing differently. (5) People start
speaking words they have never heard before, and they sound strange. (6)
Each person is changing, but they don't worry about it. (7) It is something that
only Harry worries about. (8) Also, the American names they gave to the land
seem strange after a while. (9) They don't sound as natural as the old Martian
names. (10) This shows how Mars slowly takes the Earth out of them and
makes them its own.
7.4 Pronoun Usage The form that a pronoun takes is always determined by its
function within its own clause or sentence.
Who and Whom Use who or whoever as the subject of a clause or sentence.
INCORRECT: In "The Night the Bed Fell," whom started all the ruckus?
CORRECT: In "The Night the Bed Fell," who started all the ruckus?
Use whom as the direct or indirect object of a verb or verbal and as the object of a
preposition.
People often use who for whom when speaking. In written English the pronouns
should be used correctly.
INCORRECT: Mother wanted to rescue who? Who was she worrying about?
CORRECT: Mother wanted to rescue whom? Whom was she worrying about?
In trying to determine the correct pronoun form, ignore interrupters that come
between the subject and the verb.
INCORRECT: Whom, in your estimation, was in the most danger during the ordeal?
EXAMPLE: Who, in your estimation, was in the most danger during the ordeal?
Pronouns in Contractions Do not confuse the contractions it's, they're, who's, and
you're with possessive pronouns that sound the same—its, their, whose, and
your.
INCORRECT: Briggs and the narrator have no idea who's fault the commotion is.
CORRECT: Briggs and the narrator have no idea whose fault the commotion is.
Pronouns with Nouns Determine the correct form of the pronoun in phrases such
as we girls and us boys by dropping the noun and saying the sentence without
the noun that follows the pronoun.
INCORRECT: I believe that a story is most interesting when us readers are
confused along with the characters.
CORRECT: I believe that a story is most interesting when we readers are confused
along with the characters.
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GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct pronoun given in parentheses.
(1) (Who, Whom) in "The Night the Bed Fell" remains the calmest? (2) Let
(whomever, whoever) thinks he or she would not be scared think again. (3)
Those (who, whom) have a lot of relatives will best understand this story. (4) To
(who, whom) in the class has a similar experience happened? (5) Heather tells
us about a misunderstanding she had with her cousins, (who, whom) she stays
with in the summer. (6) But (their, they're) all still good friends. (7) What would
you do if you heard a crash in the middle of the night in (your, you're) house?
(8) After a scare like that (its, it's) hard to get back to sleep.
8 Using Verbs Correctly
8.1 Verb Tenses and Forms Verb tense shows the time of an action or a condition.
Writers sometimes cause confusion when they use different verb tenses in
describing actions that occur at the same time.
Consistent Use of Tenses When two or more actions occur at the same time or in
sequence, use the same verb tense to describe the actions.
INCORRECT: In "The Eternal Frontier" Louis LAmour writes about outer space. He
considered the effect of space-age technology on our daily lives.
CORRECT: In "The Eternal Frontier" Louis L'Amour writes about outer space. He
considers the effect of space-age technology on our daily lives.
A shift in tense is necessary when two events occur at different times or out of
sequence. The tenses of the verbs should clearly indicate that one action
precedes the other.
INCORRECT: We once have found adventure in the discovery of new lands. Now
we will receive transmissions from places that in the past we only imagine.
CORRECT: We once found adventure in the discovery of new lands. Now we
receive transmissions from places that in the past we only imagined.
Tense
Verb Form
Present
open/opens
Past
opened
Future
will/shall open
Present
perfect have/has opened
Past perfect
had opened
Future perfect
will/shall have opened
Past Tense and the Past Participle The simple past form of a verb can always
stand alone. The past participle of the following irregular verbs should always
be used with a helping verb.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
be (is/are)
was/were
(have, had) been
begin
began
(have, had) begun
break
broke
(have, had) broken
bring
brought
(have, had) brought
choose
chose
(have, had) chosen
come
came
(have, had) come
do
did
(have, had) done
drink
drank
(have, had) drunk
eat
ate
(have, had) eaten
fall
fell
(have, had) fallen
freeze
froze
(have, had) frozen
give
gave
(have, had) given
go
went
(have, had) gone
grow
grew
(have, had) grown
lose
lost
(have, had) lost
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USAGE TIP Some writers use gradual shifts in verb tense (such as from the past to
the past participle) to move from the past up through to the present. This can be
used to show developments throughout a historical period as in the example
above. When using this technique, be careful to use verb tenses that clearly
convey your message.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct verb tense for each sentence.
(1) "The Eternal Frontier" (deals, dealt, will deal) with the opportunities that the
space age offers. (2) Some medical developments (are beginning, began,
begun) with the space age—for example, laparoscopy and robotics. (3) Both of
these areas (grow, grew, have grown) to advance the field of surgery
dramatically. (4) In 1993 a "robotic assistant" (begin, began, has begun) helping
in surgery. (5) People also (come, have came, have come) to expect simpler
procedures because of these new techniques. (6) Laser surgery (is, have been,
will be) another procedure that avoids cutting into tissue. (7) Such techniques
(spring, sprang, have sprung) from technology developed for space exploration.
8.2 Commonly Confused Verbs The following verb pairs are easily confused.
Let and Leave Let means "to allow or permit." Leave means "to depart" or "to allow
something to remain where it is."
INCORRECT: Rudyard Kipling, the author of "Rikki-tikki-tavi," often leaves animal
characters tell his stories.
CORRECT: Rudyard Kipling, the author of "Rikki-tikki-tavi," often lets animal
characters tell his stories.
Lie and Lay Lie means "to rest in a flat position." Lay means "to put or place:'
INCORRECT: Rikki-tikki was laying in the middle of the path.
CORRECT: Rikki-tikki was lying in the middle of the path.
Sit and Set Sit means "to be in a seated position!' Set means "to put or place
INCORRECT: The mongoose set on the shoulder of the boy who immediately sat a
piece of meat before it.
CORRECT: The mongoose sat on the shoulder of the boy who immediately set a
piece of meat before it.
Rise and Raise Rise means "to move upward." Raise means "to move something
upward."
INCORRECT: Nag just raised up, rising his head threateningly.
CORRECT: Nag just rose up, raising his head threateningly.
Learn and Teach Learn means "to gain knowledge or skill' Teach means "to help
someone learn!'
INCORRECT: Rikki-tikki learned Nag to fear something.
CORRECT: Rikki-tikki taught Nag to fear something.
Here are the principal parts of these troublesome verb pairs.
Present Tense
Past Tense
Past Participle
let
let
(have, had) let
leave
left
(have, had) left
lie
lay
(have, had) lain
lay
laid
(have, had) laid
sit
sat
(have, had) sat
set
set
(have, had) set
rise
rose
(have, had ) risen
raise
raised
(have, had) raised
learn
learned
(have, had) learned
teach
taught
(have, had) taught
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Choose the correct verb from each pair of words.
(1) Rudyard Kipling's tale "Rikki-tikki-tavi" (learns, teaches) readers many facts
about the cobra and its natural enemy, the mongoose. (2) Most snakes (lay, lie)
hidden to avoid
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people and animals much of the time. (3) The cobra, however, (raises, rises) to
seek out its victim. (4) (Letting, Leaving) a cobra alone is no protection either.
(5) An unintentional disturbance can (set, sit) one against you. (6) Both male
and female, while protecting their eggs, for example, will (raise, rise) up against
any approaching intruder. (7) The venom of the cobra is a deadly nerve- and
muscle-paralyzing substance that (lets, leaves) a human being dead within a
few hours.
9 Using Modifiers Effectively
9.1 Adjective or Adverb? Use an adjective to modify a noun or a pronoun. Use an
adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
INCORRECT: Traditional Chinese families do not regard a two-income household
as high as American families do, so the family in "The White Umbrella" must be
real desperate if the mother has to work outside the home.
CORRECT: Traditional Chinese families do not regard the two-income household
as highly as American families do, so the family in "The White Umbrella" must
be rather desperate if the mother has to work outside the home.
Use an adjective after a linking verb to describe the subject.
Remember that in addition to forms of the verb be, the following are linking verbs:
become, seem, appear, look, sound, feel, taste, grow, and smell.
EXAMPLES: The narrator feels bad that her mother is working, although her sister
thinks differently, not caring if anybody knows.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct modifier in each pair.
(1) In The White Umbrella" the two sisters listen as Eugenie Roberts plays the piano
(real, really) well. (2) They wait (respectful, respectfully) for her lesson to finish.
(3) People (usual, usually) begin piano lessons when they are young. (4)
Children develop (valuable, valuably) skills at the piano, such as the ability to
follow rhythm and read music. (5) Music is something that (deep, deeply)
affects all people. (6) Although musicians come from many different countries,
they are able to play together (perfect, perfectly). (7) Music is a (natural,
naturally) human expression.
9.2 Comparisons and Negatives
Comparative and Superlative Adjectives Use the comparative form of an adjective
when comparing two things.
Comparative adjectives are formed by adding -er to short adjectives (small—
smaller) or by using the word more with longer adjectives (horrible—more
horrible).
INCORRECT: Traveling across the Atlantic Ocean in days past was uncomfortabler
than flying is today.
CORRECT: Traveling across the Atlantic Ocean in days past was much more
uncomfortable than flying is today.
Use the superlative form when comparing three or more things.
The superlative is formed by adding -est to short adjectives (tall—tallest) or by using
the word most with longer adjectives (interesting—most interesting).
INCORRECT: Obtaining passage, traveling steerage, or passing through customs:
which was difficultest?
CORRECT: Obtaining passage, traveling steerage, or passing through customs:
which was most difficult?
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The comparative and superlative forms of some adjectives are irregular.
Adjective
Comparative.
Superlative
good
better
best
well
better
best
bad
worse
worst
ill
worse
worst
little
less orlesser
least
much
more
most
many
more
most
far
farther orfurther
farthest orfurthest
Comparative and Superlative Adverbs When comparing two actions, use the
comparative form of an adverb, which is formed by adding -er or the word more.
INCORRECT: European immigrants, frequenter than not, entered the United States
frightened and exhausted.
CORRECT: European immigrants, more frequently than not entered the United
States frightened and exhausted.
WATCH OUT! Do not use both -er and more. Do not use both -est and most.
Remove more and most from the following sentence: The ship was more faster
than the most fastest winds. Do you notice the improvement?
When comparing more than two actions, use the superlative form of an adverb,
which is formed by adding -est or by using the word most.
EXAMPLE: Of the several ports of entry, European immigrants entered through
Ellis Island most often.
Double Negatives To avoid double negatives, use only one negative word in a
clause.
Besides not and no, the following are negative words: never, nobody, none, no one,
nothing, and nowhere.
EXAMPLE: Most immigrants didn't ever regret moving to a new country.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct modifier in each pair.
(1) More than 60 years after Ellis Island opened as the (larger, largest) port of entry
to this country, it was abandoned. (2) In the 1980s the facilities underwent the
(greatest, most greatest) restoration ever. (3) The National Park Service helped
supervise but did not try to find (any, no) funding sources. (4) The Statue of
Liberty-Ellis Island Restoration Project (activelier, more actively) solicited
contributions. (5) In 1990 there was a (grand, grandly) reopening of the main
building. (6) The museum and examination rooms remind us that our
immigration process used to be (worse, worser). (7) Which films, objects, and
oral histories (more vividly, most vividly) record our past?
9.3 Special Problems with Modifiers The following terms are frequently misused
in spoken English, but they should be used correctly in written English.
Them and Those Them is always a pronoun and never a modifier for a noun.
Those is a pronoun when it stands alone. It is an adjective when followed by a
noun.
INCORRECT: In "Growing Up" Baker describes them experiences that led him to
become a writer.
CORRECT: In "Growing Up" Baker describes those experiences that led him to
become a writer.
Bad and Badly Always use bad as an adjective, whether before a noun or after a
linking verb. Badly should generally be used to modify an action verb.
EXAMPLES: Knowing that he had done badly, he returned to the house defeated.
He felt bad because he did not sell any papers.
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WATCH OUT! Avoid the use of here after this or these. Similarly, avoid using there
after that or those. Notice the improvement when here and there are removed
from the following sentence:
INCORRECT: I was amused by this here story. Russell's attempt to sell that there
Saturday Evening Post was funny.
CORRECT: I was amused by this story. Russell's attempt to sell that Saturday
Evening Post was funny.
This, That, These, and Those Whether used as adjectives or pronouns, this and
these refer to people and things that are nearby, and that and those refer to
people and things that are farther away.
EXAMPLES: After deciding to concentrate on writing, Baker found this work more
satisfying than that tiresome routine of selling papers.
Good and Well Good is always an adjective, never an adverb. Use well as either an
adjective or an adverb, depending on the sentence.
When used as an adjective, well usually refers to a person's health. As an adverb,
well modifies an action verb. In the expression "feeling good," good refers to
being happy or pleased.
EXAMPLES: Baker's little sister sold papers well. Baker felt good about her
success and bought her an apple.
Few and Little, Fewer and Less Few refers to numbers of things that can be
counted; little refers to amounts or quantities. Fewer is used when comparing
numbers of things; less is used when comparing amounts or quantities.
INCORRECT: As a writer, Baker would encounter less angry dogs. He would have
few sense of rejection and fewer hardship than he would if he continued trying
to sell the Saturday Evening Post.
CORRECT: As a writer, Baker would encounter fewer angry dogs. He would have
less sense of rejection and less hardship than he would if he continued trying to
sell the Saturday Evening Post.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the modifier from each pair that fits the meaning of the sentence.
(1) In "Growing Up," Russell Baker's mother is one of (them, those) mothers who
works hard to guide her children. (2) Times were hard during the Depression
and (few, less) people lived in luxury. (3) Naturally, she was concerned that
Russell grow up to have a (good, well) profession. (4) (This, That) concern
motivated her to teach him about character and gumption. (5) She was
disappointed when he sold papers (bad, badly). (6) Russell had (few, little)
interest in selling papers; however, the experience taught him about himself. (7)
He learned that such a profession would give him (few, less) satisfaction than a
job collecting garbage. (8) He needed a job that would accommodate (good,
well) his lack of gumption.
10 Phrases and Clauses
A phrase is a group of related words that does not have a subject and predicate and
that functions in a sentence as a single part of speech. Phrases may appear
anywhere in a sentence. If a phrase appears at the beginning of a sentence, it
is called an introductory phrase. Because phrases can act as a single part of
speech, they are classified as prepositional phrases, appositive phrases,
infinitive phrases, participial phrases, and gerund phrases.
10.1 Prepositional Phrases When a phrase consists of a preposition, its object,
and any modifiers of the object, it is called a prepositional phrase. Prepositional
phrases that modify nouns or pronouns are called adjective phrases.
Prepositional phrases that modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb are
adverb phrases.
ADJECTIVE PHRASE: In the excerpt from I Never Had It Made, Jackie Robinson
tells the story of his integration of the Brooklyn Dodgers.
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ADVERB PHRASE: Jackie Robinson had played for the Montreal Royals.
10.2 Appositive Phrases An appositive phrase is a group of words that identifies
or provides further information about a noun or pronoun that directly precedes
the phrase.
EXAMPLE: Jackie Robinson, an exceptional athlete was Branch Rickey's pick to be
the first African-American player to join the Dodgers.
10.3 Infinitive Phrases An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive (to + a verb)
along with its modifiers and objects.
EXAMPLE: Branch Rickey wanted to integrate major-league baseball.
10.4 Participial Phrases A participial phrase is a group of words that includes a
participle. There are two kinds of participles: past and present. The past
participle is usually formed by adding -d or -ed to the present tense; however,
irregular verbs do not follow this rule. The present participle is formed by adding
-ing to the present tense of any verb. A participle with its objects and modifiers
is called a participial phrase. Participial phrases act as adjectives, modifying a
noun or a pronoun.
EXAMPLE: Having read Robinson's autobiography, I can better imagine the
difficulties he faced.
10.5 Gerund Phrases A gerund is a verb form ending in -ing that functions as a
noun. A gerund phrase is a group of words that includes a gerund and its
modifiers and objects.
EXAMPLE: Maintaining his self-control was one of Robinson's best defenses.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Identify each underlined phrase as a prepositional phrase, an appositive phrase, an
infinitive phrase, a participial phrase, or a gerund phrase.
(1) After reading Jackie Robinson's autobiography, I wanted to find out more about
Robinson. (2) Searching through the library, I came across several books and
articles on the subject. (3) Opposition to Robinson died down after his first year
with the Dodgers. (4) Voted the most valuable player in the league in 1949,
Robinson went on to be one of the most popular Dodger players. (5) Robinson
played his entire major-league career with the same team, the Brooklyn
Dodgers. (6) Reading about this period in American sports history was
sometimes a painful experience. (7) In 1962 Robinson became the first African
American to enter the National Baseball Hall of Fame.
10.6 Independent (Main) and Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses A clause is a
group of words that contains a subject and a verb. There are two kinds of
clauses: main (independent) clauses and subordinate (dependent) clauses. A
main clause can stand alone as a complete sentence. A dependent clause
cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be attached to a main clause to
form a complex sentence. If a dependent clause is not attached to a main
clause, it is considered a sentence fragment.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE: I read 'Amigo Brothers."
DEPENDENT CLAUSE: After I finished dinner
COMPLEX SENTENCE: After I finished dinner, I read 'Amigo Brothers."
10.7 Adjective and Adverb Clauses An jective clause is a dependent clause used
as an adjective. Adjective clauses are usually introduced by the relative
pronouns who, whom, whose, which, and that. An adverb clause is a
dependent clause that is used as an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSE: Felix and Antonio are the names of the boys who are the
main characters in 'Amigo Brothers."
ADVERB CLAUSE: The boys had to make a decision before they met in the
division final match in August.
10.8 Noun Clauses A noun clause is a dependent clause that is used in a sentence
as a noun. A noun clause may be used as a subject, a direct object, an indirect
object, a
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predicate noun, or an object of a preposition.
EXAMPLE: The division final match would determine who would represent the
Boys Club in the Golden Gloves Tournament.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Identify each underlined clause as a main or dependent clause. If the clause is
dependent, identify it as an adjective clause, an adverb clause, or a noun
clause.
(1) Antonio and Felix promised each other not to pull their punches. (2) Each boy
wondered what would happen to their friendship after the fight. (3) Felix went to
a movie called The Champion when he wanted to psych himself for the fight. (4)
Antonio went up to the rooftop, where he did some heavy thinking. (5) In the
end, Felix and Antonio didn't care which of them won the division final match.
11 The Structure of Sentences
The structure of a sentence is determined by the number and kind of clauses it
contains. Sentences are classified as simple, compound, complex, and
compound-complex.
11.1 Simple Sentences A simple sentence is made up of one independent clause
and no dependent (or subordinate) clauses.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
Sam ran to the theater.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
Max waited in front of the theater.
A simple sentence may contain a compound subject or a compound verb.
SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH A COMPOUND SUBJECT: Sam and Max went to the
movie.
SIMPLE SENTENCE WITH A COMPOUND VERB: They clapped and whistled at
their favorite parts.
11.2 Compound Sentences A compound sentence is made up of two or more
independent clauses joined together.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
Sam likes action movies, but
Max prefers comedies.
Independent clauses can be joined with a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a
semicolon, or a conjunctive adverb preceded by a semicolon and followed by a
comma.
COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A COMMA AND A COORDINATING
CONJUNCTION: I have not seen the movie yet, but I heard it is terrific.
COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A SEMICOLON: The actor jumped from one
building to another; he barely made the final leap.
COMPOUND SENTENCE WITH A CONJUNCTIVE ADVERB: The actor knew all
the lines; however, he didn't play the part very well.
WATCH OUT! Do not confuse a compound sentence with a simple sentence that
has compound parts.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Identify the subject and verb in each part of the compound sentence; identify the
conjunction or semicolon.
(1) Yellowstone Park was crowded, and most of the campgrounds were full. (2) A
family of bears approached our car, but the mother bear led her cubs away. (3)
We took our new video camera with us, and my sister taped some of our
adventures. (4) My brother and I went for a hike, but we got lost. (5) My brother
was in a hurry to get back, so I feared being left behind.
11.3 Complex Sentences A complex sentence is made up of one independent
clause and one or more dependent clauses.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSE
I would like to be an actor, although I've never been on stage before.
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
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An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent clause also
has a subject and a predicate, but cannot stand alone. It is often introduced by
a subordinating conjunction, such as when, if, because, although, or until.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
In each of the following complex sentences, identify each clause as either
independent or dependent.
(1) Although Florence Nightingale came from a wealthy English family, she was
known for her wit and beauty. (2) She could speak and read many languages
before she turned 16. (3) Before she was 30, she decided on her true mission
in life; she would care for sick people. (4) Since her family did not approve of
her plans, she secretly read books on health and nursing. (5) Florence became
an expert on hospitals and public health because she worked so hard. (6) While
the Crimean War was raging, she cared for wounded soldiers in Turkey and
reorganized the military hospitals. (7) Because she was so diligent, the soldiers
called Nightingale the Lady with the Lamp.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE: MIXED REVIEW
Identify each sentence as Simple, Compound, or Complex.
(1) When the ancient Egyptians were at their strongest, they used hieroglyphics, a
kind of picture writing. (2) Few Egyptians wrote in hieroglyphics after A.D. 394.
(3) It was forgotten after a few centuries because no one used it. (4) Later,
people studied the ancient Egyptian civilization, and they wanted to read the
hieroglyphics (5) They tried to interpret it, but no one knew how. (6) Then in
1799, a French soldier found the clue to hieroglyphics. (7) While the French
army was building a fort near the town of Rosetta in Egypt, the soldier found a
black stone. (8) A message was carved on the Rosetta stone in hieroglyphics,
in another ancient Egyptian language, and in ancient Greek. (9) People could
read Greek, and they compared it with hieroglyphics. (10) It took 23 years
before scholars translated hieroglyphics.
11.4 Compound-Complex Sentences A compound-complex sentence is made up
of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. If you
start with a compound sentence, all you need to do to form a compoundcomplex sentence is add a dependent clause.
COMPOUND SENTENCE:
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
All the students wanted to be in the play, but many were too shy to audition.
COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE:
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES
All the students wanted to be In the play, but many were too shy to audition,
although some finally found the courage to do so.
DEPENDENT CLAUSE
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
In each of the following compound-complex sentences, identify each clause as
independent or dependent.
(1) The Titanic was the second of three sister ships; the other two were named
Olympic and Gigantic, which was later renamed Britannic. (2) While it was on its
maiden voyage in April 1912, the Titanic hit an iceberg, and the ship sank in 2
hours 40 minutes. (3) While Titanic foundered in its last moments, the ship split
in two, and each half plunged two and half miles to the bottom of the ocean. (4)
The ship's bow slammed into the ocean floor, and the stern landed almost a
half-mile away, as people struggled to survive at the ocean's surface. (5) The
ship had 2,200 people on board, and although Titanic had lifeboat capacity for
1,178, only 705 survived.
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GRAMMAR PRACTICE: MIXED REVIEW
Identify each sentence with S for simple, CD for compound, CX for complex, and
CC for compound-complex.
(1) In Greek mythology, Daedalus tried to escape from Crete. (2) After he made
wings out of feathers, he flew to the island of Santorini. (3) A plane, the
Daedalus, made the same journey in 1988; it was powered solely by human
muscle. (4) Although people had wanted to power planes by human muscle for
many years, the existing planes were too heavy. (5) When lightweight material
was invented in the 1970s, people used the material to make the Daedalus, and
finally planes were light enough. (6) Its wingspan was 112 feet, but it weighed
only 68.5 pounds. (7) Although the plane had huge wings and weighed very
little, the pilot required great strength. (8) The plane had a bicycle mechanism,
and it was pedaled by an Olympic cyclist from Greece. (9) The cyclist trained
hard for the flight; it was a test of endurance. (10) The flight was 74 miles long
and took 3 hours and 54 minutes.
12 Correcting Capitalization
12.1 Proper Nouns and Adjectives
A common noun names a whole class of persons, places, things, or ideas. A proper
noun names a particular person, place, thing or idea. A proper adjective is an
adjective formed from a proper noun. All proper nouns and proper adjectives
are capitalized.
Names and Personal Titles Capitalize the name and title of a person.
Also capitalize the initials and abbreviations of titles that stand for those names.
Thomas Alva Edison, T A. Edison, Governor James Thompson, and Mr. Aaron
Copland are capitalized correctly.
EXAMPLES: In The Autobiography of Malcolm X, Malcolm X tells how his desire to
write letters—to Elijah Muhammad, for example— inspired him to study.
Capitalize a word referring to a family relationship when it is used as someone's
name (Uncle Al) but not when it is used to identify a person (Jill's uncle).
EXAMPLES: If the people he mentions—Ella and Reginald—had been aunt and
uncle instead of sister and brother, he might have called them Aunt Ella and
Uncle Reginald.
WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize personal titles used as common nouns. (We met
the mayor)
Languages, Nationalities, Religious Terms Capitalize the names of languages
and nationalities as well as religious names and terms.
Capitalize languages and nationalities, such as French, Gaelic, Chinese, and
Tagalog. Capitalize religious names and terms, such as Allah, Jehovah, Bible,
and Koran.
EXAMPLES: This famous African American was a Muslim so he must have read
the Koran.
School Subjects Capitalize the name of a specific school course (Civics 101,
General Science). Do not capitalize a general reference to a school subject
(social studies, algebra, art).
EXAMPLES: Malcolm X read about history and religion, but at first he could have
used courses such as Penmanship 101 or Beginning English.
WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize minor words in a proper noun that is made up of
several words (Field Museum of Natural History).
Organizations, Institutions Capitalize the important words in the official names of
organizations and institutions (Congress, University of Texas).
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Do not capitalize words that refer to kinds of organizations or institutions (college,
hospital, museums) or words that refer to specific organizations but are not their
official names (to the museum).
EXAMPLES: He began reading in Charlestown Prison but really explored in depth
the library at Norfolk Prison Colony.
Geographical Names, Events, Time Periods Capitalize geographical names, as
well as the names of events, historical periods and documents, holidays, and
months and days, but not the names of seasons or directions.
WATCH OUT! Do not capitalize a reference that does not use the full name of a
place, event, or period. (The Empire State Building was once the tallest
building in the world.)
EXAMPLES: As Malcolm X studied the dictionary, he learned about the aardvark, a
termite-eating mammal from Africa. He read constantly—summer, winter,
spring, and fall—in the library and in his cell.
Names
Examples
Continents
Africa, South America
Bodies of water
Pacific Ocean, Lake Charles, Amazon River
Political units
Maine, Japan, Brasilia
Sections of a country
the South, Middle Atlantic States
Public areas
the Loop, the Boston Common
Roads and structures
Park Avenue, Hoover Dam, Chrysler
Building
Historical events
the War of 1812, the Emancipation
Proclamation
Documents
Magna Carta, the Treaty of Paris
Periods of history
the Middle Ages, Reconstruction
Holidays
Arbor Day, New Year's Day
Months and days
May, Sunday
Seasons
summer, autumn
Directions
north, south
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Write the correct forms of the words given in parentheses.
(1)Like (malcolm X, Malcolm X), Jawaharlal Nehru, first (prime minister, Prime
Minister) of India, used prison for serious reading and writing. (2) While
imprisoned, (nehru, Nehru), too, used letter writing to improve his
communication skills. (3) His letters to his daughter, Indira, later (prime minister,
Prime Minister) Ghandi, were the basis for a book on (world history, World
History). (4) In prison, too, Nehru completed his (autobiography,
Autobiography). (5) A Brahmin from (kashmir, Kashmir), he was educated at
(harrow school, Harrow School) and (cambridge university, Cambridge
University) in England. (6) He was as eloquent in (hindi, Hindi) as in (english,
English).
12.2 Titles of Created Works Titles need to follow certain capitalization rules.
Poems, Stories, Articles Capitalize the first word, the last word, and all other
important words in the title of a poem, a story, or an article. Enclose the title in
quotation marks.
EXAMPLE: Walt Whitman's poem "Song of Myself" celebrates his humanity and the
joy of living in a glorious world.
Books, Plays, Magazines, Newspapers, Films Capitalize the first word, the last
word, and all other important words in the title of a book, play or musical,
magazine, newspaper, or film. Underline or italicize the title to set it off.
Within a title, don't capitalize articles, conjunctions, and prepositions of fewer than
five letters.
EXAMPLE: It appeared in his book Leaves of Grass, whose unconventional form
and apparent immodesty shocked readers.
In cases where a title that is ordinarily italicized appears in a sentence that itself is
in italics, the title should then appear in ordinary type to set it off from the rest of
the sentence.
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EXAMPLE: Madeleine L'Engle's novel A Wrinkle in Time is an example of science
fiction.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite this paragraph, correcting punctuation and capitalization of titles.
(1) Some of Walt Whitman's first published poems appeared in the small book
leaves of grass. (2) Others—such as those about the Civil War—beat! beat!
drums!, when lilacs last in the dooryard bloom'd, and o captain! my captain!—
appeared in the collection drum- taps. (3) Whitman was also a journalist:
founder of the freeman, editor-printer of the long islander, editor of the Brooklyn
daily eagle and the Brooklyn times, and reporter or writer for numerous other
newspapers. (4) Some of his short stories were published in popular magazines
such as the democratic review. (5) Others—for example, the half-breed-appeared in collections. (6) Whitman even wrote a novel: franklin evans. (7)
Some collections of his works include the complete writings of walt whitman and
the uncollected poetry and prose of wait whitman.
13 Correcting Punctuation
13.1 Compound Sentences Punctuation helps organize longer sentences that
have several clauses.
Commas in Compound Sentences Use a comma before the conjunction that joins
the clauses of a compound sentence.
EXAMPLE: In Boy: Tales of Childhood Roald Dahl describes trips to the candy
store with his friends, and he tells about the prank which got him into trouble.
Semicolons in Compound Sentences Use a semicolon between the clauses of a
compound sentence when no conjunction is used. Use a semicolon before, and
a comma after, a conjunctive adverb that joins the clauses of a compound
sentence.
Conjunctive adverbs include therefore, however, then, nevertheless, consequently,
and besides.
EXAMPLES: The boys each received a weekly allowance; they enthusiastically
spent their money at the local sweets hop. Licorice was one of their favorite
types of candy; however, Thwaites's father told them it was made from rats'
blood.
USAGE TIP Even when clauses are connected by a coordinating conjunction, you
should use a semicolon between them if one or both clauses contain a comma.
The Great Mouse Plot, a silly little prank had painful consequences; but the five
boys would still say it was fun.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite these sentences, adding commas and semicolons where necessary.
(1) The boys in the story like the sweetshop but they dislike Mrs. Pratchett because
she is dirty all the time. (2) There were few health codes in 1923 so Mrs.
Pratchett could get away with
wearing dirty clothes and wrapping up candy in newspaper. (3) There are other
reasons the boys don't like her for example, she often accuses them of stealing.
(4) They never steal anything from the shop but Mrs. Pratchett always yells at
them. (5) The mouse prank seems like a good idea and it is a way to get back
at her. (6) The boys think that the prank might have killed Mrs. Pratchett they
are relieved when they see that she is alive.
13.2 Elements Set Off in a Sentence
Most elements that are not essential to a sentence are set off by commas to
highlight the main idea of the sentence.
Introductory Words Use a comma to separate an introductory word from the rest
of the sentence.
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EXAMPLE: Certainly, "The Old Grandfather and His Little Grandson," by Leo
Tolstoy, teaches an important lesson.
Use a comma to separate an introductory phrase from the rest of the sentence.
Use a comma to set off more than one introductory prepositional phrase but not for
a single prepositional phrase in most cases.
EXAMPLE: In this tale of family life, we see the effect our conduct has. At home our
actions are a powerful teacher.
Interrupters Use commas to set off a word that interrupts the flow of a sentence.
INCORRECT: The parents fortunately were ashamed when they realized what they
were teaching their son. They thought about their behavior therefore and
decided to improve their conduct.
CORRECT: The parents, fortunately, were ashamed when they realized what they
were teaching their son. They thought about their behavior, therefore, and
decided to improve their conduct.
Use commas to set off a group of words that interrupts the flow of a sentence.
EXAMPLE: Misha noticed his parents treating his grandfather badly and, to his
parents' surprise, started to make a wooden bucket for them.
Nouns of Address Use commas to set off a noun in direct address at the
beginning of a sentence.
EXAMPLE: "Father, your table manners are an embarrassment. Please eat in the
corner," the father might have said.
Use commas to set off a noun in direct address in the middle of a sentence.
EXAMPLE: The boy's mother asked, "What are you making, Misha, from those
pieces of wood?"
Appositives Set off with commas an appositive phrase that is not necessary to the
meaning of the sentence.
The following sentence could be understood without the words set off by commas.
EXAMPLE: The father, the old man's son, scolded the grandfather.
Do not set off with commas an appositive phrase that is necessary to the meaning
of the sentence.
The following sentence could not be understood without the appositives following
Misha:
EXAMPLE: Misha the child was showing what Misha the man would be like.
USAGE TIP Sometimes if a comma is missing, a reader may group parts of a
sentence in more than one way. A comma separates the parts so they can be
read in only one way.
For Clarity Use a comma to prevent misreading or misunderstanding.
EXAMPLE: While the old man was eating, bits of food that would sometimes drop
out of his mouth disgusted the couple.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite these sentences. Add or delete commas where necessary.
(1) In our part of the world aged parents were once expected to live with their
children. (2) Today a variety of lifestyles are available to senior citizens, and the
variety is increasing. (3) Many however still live in familiar surroundings. (4)
They may rent or own senior- citizen housing either houses or apartments. (5)
In spite of these options according to the latest census more than 67 percent of
seniors still live in family homes. (6) Some people of course are able to live
independently. (7) These people can get help nursing or housekeeping care. (8)
Would you believe Willard that not even 1 percent live in traditional nursing
homes? (9) People may go in as couples or singly. (10) In 2000 4 million more
elderly people lived in this country than did in 1990.
13.3 Elements in a Series Commas should be used to separate three or more
items in a series and to separate adjectives preceding a noun.
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Subjects, Predicates, and Other Elements Use a comma after every item except
the last in a series of three or more items.
Subjects or predicates may occur in series.
EXAMPLE: In "The Highwayman" the highwayman himself, the landlord's daughter,
and the soldiers are the main characters. The soldiers come to the inn, lay a
trap there, and tie up the robber's sweetheart.
Predicate adjectives often occur in series.
EXAMPLE: The robber's sweetheart is brave faithful, and self-sacrificing. The entire
poem by Alfred Noyes is romantic, atmospheric, and exciting.
USAGE TIP Note in the example that a comma followed by a conjunction precedes
the last element in the series. That comma is always used.
Adverbs and prepositional phrases may also occur in series.
EXAMPLE: The bold highwayman approaches the inn confidently, eagerly, but
quietly. The highwayman came riding at midnight, in the silence, and by
moonlight.
Two or More Adjectives In most sentences, use a comma after each adjective
except the last of two or more adjectives that precede a noun.
If you can reverse the order of adjectives without changing the meaning or if you
can use and between them, separate the two adjectives with a comma.
EXAMPLE: The beautiful, black-eyed daughter was braiding a dark red loveknot
into her lovely long hair.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite each sentence, inserting commas where they are needed.
(1) The poem "The Highwayman" speaks of a time when wagons stagecoaches and
carriages were the main means of transportation. (2) The design of these
vehicles had changed little from the Middle Ages through the 17th 18th and
19th centuries. (3) Those who preyed on travelers could find wealthy
unprotected victims by lying in wait on the roads. (4) The dashing daring
dangerous highwaymen held great appeal for many. (5) We often find today's
robbers less charming more frightening and often more dangerous. (6)
Stagecoaches traveled in stages stopped at scheduled points and changed
horses at each stop. (7) Can you visualize the highwayman's big powerful black
charger?
13.4 Dates, Addresses, and Letters Punctuation in dates, addresses, and letters
makes information easy to understand.
Dates Use a comma between the day of the month and the year. If the date falls in
the middle of a sentence, use another comma after the year.
EXAMPLES: The sailing recorded in Exploring the Titanic took place on April 10,
1912, amidst great fanfare.
Addresses Use a comma to separate the city and the state in an address or other
location. If the city and state fall in the middle of a sentence, use a comma after
the state too.
EXAMPLES: The hull of the ship was launched in Belfast Ireland, before thousands
of spectators and several bands.
Parts of a Letter Use a comma after the greeting and after the closing in a letter.
EXAMPLE: Dear Mother, You cannot imagine how gorgeous the Titanic is. Our
stateroom seems straight out of the Grand Hotel!
Affectionately, Millicent
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite the following sentences, correcting the comma errors.
(1) Like the wreck of the Titanic, the Hindenburg disaster of May 6 1937 was the
result of a simple accident. (2) The Hindenburg
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was a showpiece in its time, traveling back and forth between Germany and
Lakehurst New Jersey for a year before it was destroyed. (3) Research at the
library in Chicago Illinois revealed that the airship was named for Paul von
Hindenburg, a German military leader and president. (4) The hydrogen- filled
Hindenburg crashed in Lakehurst New Jersey when the gas caughtfire. (5) On
September 14 1996 I first read about the Hindenburg tragedy, in which 35
people met their doom.
13.5 Quotations Quotation marks let readers know exactly who said what.
Incorrectly placed or missing quotation marks cause confusion.
Quotation Marks Use quotation marks at the beginning and the end of direct
quotations and to set off titles of short works.
INCORRECT: In Langston Hughes's Thank You, M'am, Roger replies simply,
Yes'm, to some of the woman's questions. He replies, No in, to others.
CORRECT: In Langston Hughes's "Thank You, Warn," Roger replies simply,
"Yes'm," to some of the woman's questions. He replies, "No'm," to others.
Capitalize the first word of a direct quotation, especially in a piece of dialogue.
EXAMPLE: The woman replies, "Um-hum," to Roger's apology.
USAGE TIP If quoted words are from a written source and are not complete
sentences, they can begin with a lowercase letter.
EXAMPLE: Mark Twain said that cauliflower was "nothing but cabbage with a
college education."
End Punctuation Place periods inside quotation marks. Place question marks and
exclamation points inside quotation marks if they belong to the quotation; place
them outside if they do not belong to the quotation. Place semicolons outside
quotation marks.
INCORRECT: The boy asks, "You gonna take me to jail"?
The woman replies, "Not with that face"! Offered food, he says, "That will be fine;"
then he eats.
CORRECT: The boy asks, "You gonna take me to jail?"
The woman replies, "Not with that face!" Offered food, he says, "That will be fine";
then he eats.
Use a comma to end a quotation that is a complete sentence but is followed by
explanatory words.
EXAMPLE: "I wanted a pair of blue suede shoes," said the boy.
Divided Quotations Capitalize the first word of the second part of a direct
quotation if it begins a new sentence.
EXAMPLE: "Well, you didn't have to snatch my pocketbook," Mrs. Jones replied.
"You could have asked me."
Brackets in Quotations Use brackets to enclose an editorial explanation in quoted
material.
EXAMPLE: "They [the Glenview Cardinals] came to play, but we were ready" said
the quarterback.
GRAMMAR PRACTICE
Rewrite this paragraph, inserting appropriate punctuation and capitalization.
(1) Langston Hughes once wrote children should be born without parents. (2) His
difficult childhood may have been the inspiration for one of his best-loved
poems, titled dreams.
(3) It begins with the line hold fast to dreams; it is short, so I have memorized it. (4)
You may know it the teacher said. I have seen the first stanza printed on Tshirts. (5) My soul has grown deep like the rivers Hughes says in The Negro
Speaks of Rivers. (6) How happy he would have been at his memorial service
to hear his favorite Ellington song, Do Nothing 'Til You Hear from Me! (7) Have
you read any stories by Hughes other than Thank You, M'am?
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Grammar Glossary
This glossary contains various terms you need to understand when you use the
Grammar Handbook. Used as a reference source, this glossary will help you
explore grammar concepts and the ways they relate to one another.
A
Abbreviation An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or word group; it is
often made up of initials. (B.C, A.M., Maj.)
Active voice. See Voice.
Adjective An adjective modifies, or describes, a noun or pronoun. (happy camper,
she is small)
A predicate adjective follows a linking verb and describes the subject. (The
day seemed long.)
A proper adjective is formed from a proper noun. (Jewish temple, Alaskan
husky)
The comparative form of an adjective compares two things. (more alert,
thicker)
The superlative form of an adjective compares more than two things. (most
abundant weakest)
Adjective phrase. See Phrase.
Adverb An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. (Clare sang
loudly.)
The comparative form of an adverb compares two actions. (more generously,
faster)
The superlative form of an adverb compares more than two actions. (most
sharply, closest)
Adverb, conjunctive. See Conjunctive adverb.
Adverb phrase. See Phrase.
Agreement Sentence parts that correspond with one another are said to be in
agreement.
In pronoun-antecedent agreement, a pronoun and the word it refers to are the
same in number, gender, and person. (Bill mailed his application. The
students ate their lunches.)
In subject-verb agreement the subject and verb in a sentence are the same in
number. (A child cries for help. They cry aloud.)
Ambiguous reference An ambiguous reference occurs when a pronoun may refer
to more than one word. (Bud asked his brother if he had any mail.)
Antecedent An antecedent is the noun or pronoun to which a pronoun refers. (If
Adam forgets his raincoat, he will be late for school. She learned her lesson.)
Appositive An appositive is a noun or phrase that explains one or more words in a
sentence. (Cary Grant, an Englishman, spent most of his adult life in America.)
An essential appositive is needed to make the sense of a sentence complete.
(A comic strip inspired the musical Annie.)
A nonessential appositive is one that adds information to a sentence but is
not necessary to its sense. (0. Henry, a short-story writer, spent time in
prison.)
Article Articles are the special adjectives a, an, and the. (the day, a fly)
The definite article (the word the) is one that refers to a particular thing. (the
cabin)
An indefinite article is used with a noun that is not unique but refers to one of
many of its kind. (a dish, an otter)
Auxiliary verb. See Verb.
C
Clause A clause is a group of words that contains a verb and its subject. (they
slept)
An adjective clause is a subordinate clause that modifies a noun or pronoun.
(Hugh bought the sweater that he had admired.)
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An adverb clause is a subordinate clause used to modify a verb, an adjective,
or an adverb. (Ring the bell when it is time for class to begin.)
A noun clause is a subordinate clause that is used as a noun. (Whatever you
say interests me.)
An elliptical clause is a clause from which a word or words have been omitted.
(We are not as lucky as they.)
A main (independent) clause can stand by itself as a sentence. (the flashlight
flickered)
A dependent (subordinate) clause does not express a complete thought and
cannot stand by itself. (while the nation watched)
Collective noun. See Noun.
Comma splice A comma splice is an error caused when two sentences are
separated with a comma instead of an end mark. (The band played a medley of
show tunes, everyone enjoyed the show)
Common noun. See Noun.
Comparative. See Adjective; Adverb.
Complement A complement is a word or group of words that completes the
meaning of a verb. (The kitten finished the milk.) See also Direct object; Indirect
object.
An objective complement is a word or a group of words that follows a direct
object and renames or describes that object. (The parents of the rescued
child declared Gus a hero.)
A subject complement follows a linking verb and renames or describes the
subject. (The coach seemed anxious.) See also Noun (predicate noun);
Adjective (predicate adjective).
Complete predicate The complete predicate of a sentence consists of the main
verb plus any words that modify the verb or complete the verb's meaning. (The
student produces work of high caliber.)
Complete subject The complete subject of a sentence consists of the simple
subject plus any words that modify or describe the simple subject. (Students of
history believe that wars can be avoided.)
Compound sentence part A sentence element that consists of two or more
subjects, verbs, objects, or other parts is compound. (Lou and Jay helped.
Laura makes and models scarves. Jill sings opera and popular music.)
Conjunction A conjunction is a word that links other words or groups of words.
A coordinating conjunction connects related words, groups of words, or
sentences. (and, but, or)
A correlative conjunction is one of a pair of conjunctions that work together to
connect sentence parts. (either . . . or, neither . . . nor, not only . . . but also,
whether... or, both ... and)
A subordinating conjunction introduces a subordinate clause. (after,
although, as, as if, as long as, as though, because, before, if, in order that
since, so that, than, though, till, unless, until, whatever, when, where, while)
Conjunctive adverb A conjunctive adverb joins the clauses of a compound
sentence. (however, therefore, yet)
Contraction A contraction is formed by joining two words and substituting an
apostrophe for a letter or letters left out of one of the words. (didn't, we've)
Coordinating conjunction. See Conjunction.
Correlative conjunction. See Conjunction.
D
Dangling modifier A dangling modifier is one that does not clearly modify any word
in the sentence. (Dashing for the train, the barriers got in the way.)
Demonstrative pronoun. See Pronoun.
Dependent clause. See Clause.
Direct object A direct object receives the action of a verb. Direct objects follow
transitive verbs. (Jude planned the party.)
Direct quotation. See Quotation.
Divided quotation. See Quotation.
Double negative A double negative is the incorrect use of two negative words
when only one is needed. (Nobody didn't care.)
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E
End mark An end mark is one of several punctuation marks that can end a
sentence. See the punctuation chart on page R68.
F
Fragment. See Sentence fragment.
Future tense. See Verb tense.
G
Gender The gender of a personal pronoun indicates whether the person or thing
referred to is male, female, or neuter. (My cousin plays the tuba; he often
performs in school concerts.)
Gerund A gerund is a verbal that ends in -ing and functions as a noun. (Making
pottery takes patience.)
H
Helping verb. See Verb (auxiliary verb).
I
Illogical comparison An illogical comparison is a comparison that does not make
sense because words are missing or illogical. (My computer is newer than Kay)
Indefinite pronoun. See Pronoun.
Indefinite reference Indefinite reference occurs when a pronoun is used without a
clear antecedent. (My aunt hugged me in front of my friends, and it was
embarrassing.)
Independent clause. See Clause.
Indirect object An indirect object tells to whom or for whom (sometimes to what or
for what) something is done. (Arthur wrote Kerry a letter.)
Indirect question An indirect question tells what someone asked without using the
person's exact words. (My friend asked me if I could go with her to the dentist.)
Indirect quotation. See Quotation.
Infinitive An infinitive is a verbal beginning with to that functions as a noun, an
adjective, or an adverb. (He wanted to go to the play.)
Intensive pronoun. See Pronoun.
Interjection An interjection is a word or phrase used to express strong feeling.
(Wow! Good grief!)
Interrogative pronoun. See Pronoun.
Intransitive verb. See Verb.
Inverted sentence An inverted sentence is one in which the subject comes after
the verb. (How was the movie? Here come the clowns.)
Irregular verb. See Verb.
l
Linking verb. See Verb.
M
Main clause. See Clause.
Main verb. See Verb.
Modifier A modifier makes another word more precise. Modifiers most often are
adjectives or adverbs; they may also be phrases, verbals, or clauses that
function as adjectives or adverbs. (small box, smiled broadly, house by the sea,
dog barking loudly)
An essential modifier is one that is necessary to the meaning of a sentence.
(Everybody who has a free pass should enter now. None of the passengers
got on the train.)
A nonessential modifier is one that merely adds more information to a
sentence that is clear without the addition. (We will use the new dishes,
which are stored in the closet)
N
Noun A noun names a person, a place, a thing, or an idea. (auditor, shelf, book,
goodness)
An abstract noun names an idea, a quality, or a feeling. Goy)
A collective noun names a group of things. (bevy)
A common noun is a general name of a person, a place, a thing, or an idea.
(valet, hill, bread, amazement)
A compound noun contains two or more words. (hometown, self-control,
screen test)
A noun of direct address is the name of a person being directly spoken to.
(Lee, do you have the package? No, Suki, your letter did not arrive.)
A possessive noun shows who or what owns or is associated with something.
(Lil's ring, a day's pay)
A predicate noun follows a linking verb and renames the subject. (Karen is a
writer.)
A proper noun names a particular person, place, or thing. (John Smith, Ohio,
Sears Tower, Congress)
Number A word is singular in number if it refers to just one person, place, thing,
idea, or action and plural in number if it refers to more than one person, place,
thing, idea, or action. (The words he, waiter, and is are singular. The words
they, waiters, and ore are plural.)
O
Object of a preposition The object of a preposition is the noun or pronoun that
follows a preposition. (The athletes cycled along the route. Jane baked a cake
for her.)
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Object of a verb The object of a verb receives the action of the verb. (Sid told
stories.)
P
Participle A participle is often used as part of a verb phrase. (had written) It can
also be used as a verbal that functions as an adjective. (the leaping deer, the
medicine taken for a fever)
The present participle is formed by adding -ing to the present form of a verb.
(Walking rapidly, we reached the general store.)
The past participle of a regular verb is formed by adding -d or -ed to the
present form. The past participles of irregular verbs do not follow this
pattern. (Startled, they ran from the house. Spun glass is delicate. A broken
cup lay there.)
Passive voice. See Voice.
Past tense. See Verb tense.
Perfect tenses. See Verb tense.
Person Person is a means of classifying pronouns.
A first-person pronoun refers to the person speaking. (We came.)
A second-person pronoun refers to the person spoken to. (You ask)
A third-person pronoun refers to some other person(s) or thing(s) being
spoken of. (They played.)
Personal pronoun. See Pronoun.
Phrase A phrase is a group of related words that does not contain a verb and its
subject. (noticing everything, under a chair)
An adjective phrase modifies a noun or a pronoun. (The label on the bottle has
faded.)
An adverb phrase modifies a verb, an adjective, or an adverb. (Come to the
fair.)
An appositive phrase explains one or more words in a sentence. (Mary, a
champion gymnast, won gold medals at the Olympics.)
A gerund phrase consists of a gerund and its modifiers and complements.
(Fixing the leak will take only a few minutes.)
An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive, its modifiers, and its complements.
(To prepare for a test, study in a quiet place.)
A participial phrase consists of a participle and its modifiers and complements.
(Straggling to the finish line, the last runners arrived.)
A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, its object, and the object's
modifiers. (The Saint Bernard does rescue work in the Swiss Alps.)
A verb phrase consists of a main verb and one or more helping verbs. (might
have ordered)
Possessive A noun or pronoun that is possessive shows ownership or relationship.
(Dan's story, my doctor)
Possessive noun. See Noun.
Possessive pronoun. See Pronoun.
Predicate The predicate of a sentence tells what the subject is or does. (The van
runs well even in winter. The job seems too complicated.) See also Complete
predicate; Simple predicate.
Predicate adjective. See Adjective.
Predicate nominative A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun that follows a
linking verb and renames or explains the subject. (Joan is a computer operator.
The winner of the prize was he.)
Predicate pronoun. See Pronoun.
Preposition A preposition is a word that relates its object to another part of the
sentence or to the sentence as a whole. (Alfredo leaped onto the stage.)
Prepositional phrase. See Phrase.
Present tense. See Verb tense.
Pronoun A pronoun replaces a noun or another pronoun. Some pronouns allow a
writer or speaker to avoid repeating a proper noun. Other pronouns let a writer
refer to an unknown or unidentified person or thing.
A demonstrative pronoun singles out one or more persons or things. (This is
the letter.)
An indefinite pronoun refers to an unidentified person or thing. (Everyone
stayed home. Will you hire anybody?)
An intensive pronoun emphasizes a noun or pronoun. (The teacher himself
sold tickets.)
An interrogative pronoun asks a question. (What happened to you?)
A personal pronoun shows a distinction of person. (I came. You see. He
knows.)
A possessive pronoun shows ownership. (My spaghetti is always good. Are
your parents coming to the play?)
A predicate pronoun follows a linking verb and renames the subject (The
owners of the store were they.)
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A reflexive pronoun reflects an action back on the subject of the sentence.
(Joe helped himself.)
A relative pronoun relates a subordinate clause to the word it modifies. (The
draperies, which had been made by hand, were ruined in the fire.)
Pronoun-antecedent agreement. See Agreement.
Pronoun forms
The subject form of a pronoun is used when the pronoun is the subject of a
sentence or follows a linking verb as a predicate pronoun. (She fell. The
star was she.)
The object form of a pronoun is used when the pronoun is the direct or indirect
object of a verb or verbal or the object of a preposition. (We sent him the
bill. We ordered food for them.)
Proper adjective. See Adjective.
Proper noun. See Noun.
Punctuation Punctuation clarifies the structure of sentences. See the punctuation
chart on page R68.
Q
Quotation A quotation consists of words from another speaker or writer.
A direct quotation is the exact words of a speaker or writer. (Martin said, "The
homecoming game has been postponed")
A divided quotation is a quotation separated by words that identify the
speaker. ("The homecoming game," said Martin, "has been postponed.")
An indirect quotation reports what a person said without giving the exact
words. (Martin said that the homecoming game had been postponed)
R
Reflexive pronoun. See Pronoun.
Regular verb. See Verb.
Relative pronoun. See Pronoun.
Run-on sentence A run-on sentence consists of two or more sentences written
incorrectly as one. (The sunset was beautiful its brilliant colors lasted only a
short time.)
S
Sentence A sentence expresses a complete thought. The chart below shows the
four kinds of sentences.
A compound-complex sentence contains two or more independent clauses
and one or more dependent clauses. (/ would like to be an archaeologist,
but I have never visited an ancient site, although I have had opportunities.)
A complex sentence contains one main clause and one or more subordinate
clauses. (Open the windows before you go to bed. If she falls, I'll help her
up.)
A compound sentence is made up of two or more independent clauses joined
by a conjunction, a colon, or a semicolon. (The ship finally docked, and the
passengers quickly left.)
A simple sentence consists of only one main clause. (My friend volunteers at a
nursing home.)
Sentence fragment A sentence fragment is a group of words that is only part of a
sentence. (When he arrived. Merrily yodeling.)
Simple predicate A simple predicate is the verb in the predicate. (John collects
foreign stamps.)
Simple subject A simple subject is the key noun or pronoun in the subject. (The
new house is empty.)
Split infinitive A split infinitive occurs when a modifier is placed between the word
to and the verb in an infinitive. (to quickly speak)
Subject The subject is the part of a sentence that tells whom or what the sentence
is about. (Lou swam.) See Complete subject; Simple subject.
Subject-verb agreement. See Agreement.
Subordinate clause. See Clause.
Superlative. See Adjective; Adverb.
T
Transitive verb. See Verb.
U
Unidentified reference An unidentified reference usually occurs when the word it
they, this, which, or that is used. (In California they have good weather most of
the time.)
V
Verb A verb expresses an action, a condition, or a state of being.
An action verb tells what the subject does, has done, or will do. The action may be
physical or mental. (Susan trains guide dogs.)
An auxiliary verb is added to a main verb to express tense, add emphasis, or
otherwise affect the meaning of the verb. Together the auxiliary and main verb
make up a verb phrase. (will intend, could have gone)
A linking verb expresses a state of being or connects the subject with a word or
words
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that describe the subject. (The ice feels cold.) Linking verbs include appear, be
(am, are, is, was, were, been, being), become, feel, grow, look, remain, seem,
smell, sound, and taste.
A main verb expresses action or state of being; it appears with one or more
auxiliary verbs. (will be staying)
The progressive form of a verb shows continuing action. (She is knitting.)
The past tense and past participle of a regular verb are formed by adding -d or
-ed. (open, opened) An irregular verb does not follow this pattern. (throw,
threw, thrown; shrink, shrank, shrunk)
The action of a transitive verb is directed toward someone or something,
called the object of a verb. (Leo washed the windows.) An intransitive
verb has no object. (The leaves scattered)
Verb phrase. See Phrase.
Verb tense Verb tense shows the time of an action or the time of a state of being.
The present tense places an action or condition in the present. (Jan takes
piano lessons.)
The past tense places anaction or condition in the past. (We came to the
party.)
The future tense places an action or condition in the future. (You will
understand.)
The present perfect tense describes an action in an indefinite past time or an
action that began in the past and continues in the present. (has called, have
known)
The past perfect tense describes one action that happened before another
action in the past (had scattered, had mentioned)
The future perfect tense describes an event that will be finished before
another future action begins. (will have taught, shall have appeared) Verbal
A verbal is formed from a verb and acts as another part of speech, such as
a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.
Voice The voice of a verb depends on whether the subject performs or receives the
action of the verb.
In the active voice the subject of the sentence performs the verb's action. (We
knew the answer.)
In the passive voice the subject of the sentence receives the action of the
verb. (The team has been eliminated.)
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Speaking and Listening Handbook
Good communicators do more than just talk. They use specific techniques to
present their ideas effectively, and they are attentive and critical listeners.
1 Organization and Delivery
In school, in business, and in any community, one of the best ways to present
information is to deliver it in person— speaking directly to a live audience.
Audience and Purpose
When preparing and presenting a speech, your goal is to deliver a focused,
coherent presentation that both conveys your ideas clearly and also relates to
the background and interests of your audience. By
understanding your audience, you can tailor your speech to them appropriately and
effectively.
Know your audience What kind of group are you presenting to—fellow
classmates? an entire school assembly? a group of teachers? What are
their interests and backgrounds? Understanding their different points of
view can help you address each group in the most appropriate way.
Understand your purpose Keep in mind your purpose for speaking. Are you
trying to persuade the audience to do something? Are you presenting the
audience with some latest research? Perhaps you simply want to entertain
them by sharing a story or experience.
Organize effectively As you prepare your presentation, it's important to
arrange the information—details, reasons, descriptions, and examples—
effectively and persuasively. Think about your audience and the best way to
organize the information so that they understand, absorb, and are
interested by it.
Writing Your Speech
If you are writing your speech beforehand, rather than working from notes or
memory, use the following guidelines to help you:
Create a unified speech Do this first by organizing your speech into
paragraphs, each of which develops a single main idea. Then make sure
that just as all the sentences in a paragraph support the main idea of the
paragraph, so all the paragraphs in your speech support the main idea of
the speech.
Use appropriate language The subject of your speech—and the way you
choose to present it—should match both your audience and the occasion.
Tailor your language accordingly. For example, if you were telling a funny
story to a group of friends, your speech might be informal and lighthearted.
However, if you were describing your science project to a panel of judges,
your speech would probably be serious, formal, and well organized.
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Provide evidence Include relevant facts, statistics, and incidents; quote
experts to support both your ideas and your opinions. Elaborate—or
provide specific details, perhaps with visual or media displays—to clarify
what you are saying.
Emphasize points To help your audience in following the main ideas and
concepts of your speech, be sure to draw attention to important points. You
can do this with your voice, using effective volume, tempo, inflection, and
pitch. You can also do this with nonverbal elements, such as eye contact,
facial expressions, hand gestures, and props—all of which can help hold
your audience's interest and attention.
Start strong, finish strong As you begin your speech, consider using a
"hook"—an interesting question or statement to capture your audience's
attention. At the end of the speech, restate your main ideas simply and
clearly. Perhaps conclude with a powerful example or anecdote to reinforce
your message.
Prepare/Practice/Present
Confidence is the key to a successful presentation. Use these techniques to help
you prepare and present your speech to your class.
Prepare
Review your information Reread your written report and review your
background research—you'll feel much more confident during your speech.
Organize your notes Some people prefer to include only a minimum number of
key points. Others prefer the entire script. Write each main point, or each
paragraph, of your speech on a separate index card. Be sure to include
your most important evidence and examples. It helps to number your cards.
Plan your visual aids If you are planning on using visual aids, such as slides,
posters, charts, graphs, video clips, overhead transparencies, or computer
projections, now is the time to design them and decide how to work them
into your speech.
Practice
Rehearse Rehearse your speech several times, possibly in front of a practice
audience. If you are using visual aids, practice handling them. Adapt your
rate of speaking, pitch, and tone of voice to your audience and setting. Your
style of performance should express the purpose of your speech. Use the
following chart to help your style express your purpose.
TIP: It might also be helpful to time yourself during rehearsals, to ensure that your
speech does not run too long.
Evaluate your performance When you have finished each rehearsal, evaluate
your performance. How did you do? Did you slow down for emphasis,
pause to let an important point sink in, or use gestures for emphasis? Make
a list of aspects of your presentation that you will try to perfect for your next
rehearsal.
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Present
Begin your speech In order to break the tension of the opening moments, try
to look relaxed and remember to smile!
Make eye contact During your speech, try to make eye contact with audience
members. This will not only establish the feeling of personal contact but will
help you determine if the audience understands your speech.
Remember to pause A slight pause after important points will provide
emphasis and give your audience time to think about what you are saying.
Maintain good posture Stand up straight and avoid nervous movements that
may distract the audience's attention from what you are saying.
Use expressive body language A good speaker captures the attention of an
audience through body language as well as through words. In front of an
audience, use your entire body to help express your meaning. Lean forward
when you make an important point; move your hands and arms for
emphasis. Your body language will show that you really believe in what you
are saying.
2 Narrative Presentations
When you make a narrative presentation, you tell a story or present a subject using
a story-type format. A good narrative keeps an audience both informed and
entertained. It also allows you to deliver a message in a unique and creative
way.
Establish a setting Think about a definite setting for your story. Does the
action take place in a home? a classroom? a neighborhood park? How
does the story relate to things the audience already knows about past or
current events? familiar places or people?
Create a plot What happens in your story? Is it funny? tragic? suspenseful?
How do you want the events to unfold? Over what period of time? A
standard plot line includes exposition (to draw the audience in), a central
conflict (the reason the story is told), rising action (to create tension), a
climax (the height of action), and a denouement, or resolution (to show the
final outcome).
Determine a point of view Is a narrator telling the story from the third-person
point of view? Who is the main character of the story? What is his or her
point of view? If he or she is telling the story, make the audience believe
that they are hearing the voice and opinions of a very particular person. In
real life, people are complex and not easy to define in a word or two. Make
an effort to give your main and minor characters real-life qualities.
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Use effective language Include sensory details and concrete language to
develop the plot and the character. Think about the adjectives you use to
describe something and the verbs you use to show an action. Let your
audience touch, taste, hear, and smell what's happening in the story.
Employ narrative devices Use a range of devices to keep your narrative
interesting: snappy, believable dialogue; language that builds up tension in
a scene; suspense to keep your audience members on the edge of their
seats; characters' movements, gestures, and facial expressions to convey
action and emotion.
Focus on the delivery Once you've created your narrative, your next
responsibility is to make the story come alive in presentation. Remember,
it's not just what you say but how you say it. Speak clearly and confidently.
Pace yourself and pause for emphasis. Use a range of voices, movements,
gestures, and expressions to convey different emotions and moods.
GUIDELINES
HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR NARRATIVE PRESENTATION
Did you choose a setting that makes sense and contributes to a believable
narrative?
Does your plot flow well and create the right mood for your audience?
Is your character—and his or her point of view—realistic and memorable?
Did you use strong, sensory language that allows your audience to experience
the story?
Did you use a range of narrative devices to keep your audience interested?
Did you deliver effectively and persuasively? Oral Summaries of
3 Oral Summaries of Articles and Books
When you deliver an oral summary of an article or book, you do so to share your
understanding of the main ideas and significant details of a piece with your
audience.
Introduce the subject Let your audience know right away what the article or
book is about. Who is the author and why did he or she write the piece?
What is the main idea behind the piece?
Provide supporting details Discuss the significant details of the piece. What
evidence was provided to support the main idea? Direct your audience to
specific, relevant quotes from the text.
Use your own words Deliver the information simply and clearly, expressed in
your own words (unless quoting from the source). Present your material in
a way that is easy for your audience to understand.
Convey comprehension Show your audience that you really understand the
piece. Don't simply repeat or rehash. Go beyond superficial details and
offer to answer questions.
GUIDELINES
HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR ORAL SUMMARY
Did you introduce the subject clearly?
Did you present the main idea(s) right away?
Did you discuss the supporting details of the speech, using quotes when
necessary?
Did you summarize the information using your own clear and simplified words?
Did you show your audience that you really understand the piece?
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4 Research Presentations
A research presentation is an informative, investigative presentation based on your
own research work. After you pose relevant questions to guide your research,
you will organize your information and attempt to explain, teach, and enlighten
an audience about a particular subject.
Target your audience Think about what your audience may already know
about the subject. Taking this information into consideration, develop a
focused, organized presentation.
Introduce the topic Grab your audience's attention by posing an interesting,
relevant question or stating a fascinating fact.
Convey a clear and accurate perspective Concisely explain to your audience
the purpose of your presentation, what you hope they will get out of it, and
how you went about collecting the information for it.
Present your research Offer your audience the "meat" of your presentation: all
the evidence, statistics, and details on the subject, gained from your
research. A formal research process often includes using a card catalog,
computer databases, magazines, newspapers, encyclopedias, and
dictionaries. Consider using visual aids, and be sure to cite your reference
sources. See The Writing Handbook, page R56, for information on creating
a Works Cited List.
GUIDELINES
HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR RESEARCH PRESENTATION
Did you think about your audience's previous knowledge of the subject?
Did you hook your audience with an interesting question or fact?
Did you explain the purpose and framework of the presentation?
Did you explain the process you used to collect information?
Did you present your research clearly and concisely?
Did you cite a variety of sources and use effective presentation aids?
5 Persuasive Presentations
When you deliver a persuasive presentation, you offer a clear statement on a
subject, provide relevant evidence to support your position, and attempt to
convince the audience to accept your point of view.
Determine your position In order to develop a clear position on a subject, you
need to know enough about it to make an informed, intelligent decision.
Learn about all positions on the topic before deciding which is right for you.
State your position Present your position on the subject clearly, confidently,
and enthusiastically.
Support your position Use strong, supportive evidence to back up your
position. Arm yourself with relevant facts, statistics, and expert quotes.
Provide a strong defense Consider your audience's own biases and opinions
on the subject. What kind of questions or
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doubts might they have? Prepare for and address them before they are raised.
Deliver effectively Engage your audience. Give them something to think about
by posing challenging questions. Make them aware of a problem and how it
might affect them or someone they know. Show them that you really believe
in what you are saying by showing your own emotions. Make them believe
it too.
GUIDELINES
HOW TO ANALYZE YOUR PERSUASIVE PRESENTATION
Did you present a clear statement or argument?
Did you support your argument with convincing, well-articulated facts?
Did you use sound logic in developing the argument?
Did you use voice, facial expression, gestures, and posture effectively?
Did you hold the audience's interest?
6 Active Listening for Information
Active listeners listen carefully and with purpose. They think about what they hearDefore, during, and after any presentation—whether it's a speech, a class
lecture, or even a television program.
Before Listening
Keep an open mind Don't prejudge the speaker. Listen to what he or she has
to say, and then evaluate the content critically but fairly.
Prepare yourself Review what you already know about the speaker's topic.
Then think of some questions you'd like to ask or information you'd like to
learn more about.
Listen with purpose Try to match how you listen with why you are listening.
For example, you may listen to a joke for entertainment, while you would
listen to a lesson in order to gain information. Which would you want to pay
more attention to?
Listening with a Purpose
Situation
Your friend tells a funny story
about her pet gerbil.
Reason for Listening
How to Listen
For enjoyment; to provide your
friend with an audience
Maintain eye contact; show you
understand; react to the
story.
You're listening to a speech
'titled "Wolves of the
Tundra."
For enjoyment; to learn
something new
Think about what you already
know; listen for ideas that
add to your knowledge.
Your mother explains why ,you To understand her point of
can't keep an alligator as a
view; to find opportunities
pet.
to share your own ideas
Listen carefully; respond
positively to valid points;
listen for opportunities to
state your own reasons.
You and your friends are trying
Ito arrange a trip to a
concert.
To solve a problem
Identify goals and problems;
listen closely to each
other's ideas and build on
them.
You are watching a television
program about cooking or
carpentry.
To follow directions
Listen for words such as first,
second, next, and finally;
take notes that you can
refer to later.
While Listening
Block out distractions Keep your eyes on the speaker, focus your mind, and
ignore outside interference.
Look for signals of main ideas. See the Guidelines box on the next page.
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Take notes, if appropriate Jot down phrases, main ideas, and questions that
occur to you.
Look for relationships between ideas Note comparisons and contrasts,
causes and effects, and problems and solutions.
Identify tone, mood, and gesture To aid in your comprehension, note how the
speaker uses word choice, voice pitch, posture, and gesture to convey
meaning.
TIP: If you are listening to oral instructions or directions, be sure to take notes and
clarify anything that is unclear. Consider restating the information to the
speaker to make sure that you understand what was said.
GUIDELINES
HOW TO RECOGNIZE MAIN IDEAS
Did you listen for ideas presented first or last?
Did you listen for ideas repeated several times for emphasis?
Did you note statements that begin with phrases such as "My point is .. :' or
"The important thing is ..."?
Did you pay attention to ideas presented in a loud voice or with forceful
gestures?
In a multimedia presentation, did you note points the speaker had reproduced
on a chart or on any other visual aid?
After Listening
Review notes taken Make sure you understand what was said.
Ask questions Ask the speaker probing questions to elicit more information.
Demand additional evidence to support claims and conclusions made.
Clarify anything that was unclear or confusing.
Summarize, paraphrase and evaluate Restate the speaker's ideas in your
own words. Clarify your reasons for agreeing or disagreeing.
Respond to the speaker Respond to persuasive statements with questions,
challenges, or affirmations.
GUIDELINES
HOW TO EVALUATE WHAT YOU HEAR
What is the purpose of the talk and does the speaker achieve it?
Does the information make sense? Does it contradict anything you already
know?
Are ideas presented in an interesting and logical way?
Are points supported with facts and details?
Do you still have any questions after hearing the talk?
Do you agree with what the speaker said? Why or why not?
7 Critical Listening
As you listen to a speaker's ideas, you will want to analyze, evaluate, and critique
those ideas. Use the following critical listening strategies as you listen to a
public speaker:
Determine the speaker's purpose Identify the speaker's purpose in giving the
speech. Is the speaker trying to inform? to persuade? to express thoughts
or feelings? to entertain?
Listen for the main idea Figure out the speaker's main message before
allowing yourself to be distracted by seemingly convincing facts and details
of the speech.
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Distinguish between fact and opinion Know the difference between opinion
statements such as "I think/I believe" vs. fact statements such as "Statistics
show" or "It has been proven:'
Recognize the use of rhetorical devices Some speakers use special
techniques to accomplish different purposes when they express their ideas.
Noting these techniques as you listen will enable you to identify these
purposes. For example, a speaker may use repetition of certain words or
phrases, which allows him or her to emphasize ideas or draw your attention
to something important. The speaker may also pose rhetorical questions,
questions that you are not expected to respond to, to involve you in the
topic. The speaker may use a third device such as an allusion, an indirect
reference to something, for the purpose of pleasing and making a
connection to a listener who recognizes the reference.
Provide feedback Respond constructively to what the speaker says. Let the
speaker know your questions and concerns regarding the speech's content
and delivery. What was the speech's overall impact on you, the listener?
Analyze use of media If the speech included a combination of images, text,
and sound (such as electronic journalism), analyze the techniques and how
effective they were in contributing to your understanding of what was said.
8 Recognize Persuasive Devices
An important part of critical listening is the ability to recognize persuasive devices—
techniques used to persuade you to accept a particular opinion. Persuasive
devices may represent faulty reasoning and provide misleading information.
They are often used in advertising and in propaganda. Some persuasive
devices that you should learn to recognize:
Inaccurate generalization A generalization is a broad statement about a
number of people or things, such as "Maps are hard to read." Although
some generalizations are true, other generalizations are too broad to be
true. The statement "All teenagers like junk food" is an example of an
inaccurate generalization.
Either/Or A writer may try to convince an audience that there are only two
choices, or ways of looking at something, when in fact there may be many.
The statement "If you don't join the glee club, you have no school spirit" is
an example of either/or reasoning.
Bandwagon A bandwagon statement appeals to people's desires to belong to
a group. For example, a statement like "Everyone at your school already
has this hot new watch" is an example of a bandwagon device.
Snob appeal This technique appeals to people's need to feel superior to other
people. A statement like "You deserve the best, so buy this jacket" relies on
snob appeal.
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GUIDELINES
HOW TO LISTEN CRITICALLY
Are you aware of the speaker's purpose in addressing you?
Does the speaker seem confident in his or her knowledge of the subject?
Does the speaker convince with concrete evidence rather than creative
rhetoric?
Are you able to distinguish between personal opinions and verifiable facts?
Does the speaker use faulty or misleading persuasive devices?
Did you clarify any information that seemed unclear or confusing?
Did you respond constructively and analyze the effect of media supplements?
9 Group Communication
There are many reasons to have a group discussion, from just sharing your ideas to
solving problems. Participating successfully in group communication requires all
of your listening, speaking, and social skills.
Assigned Roles
A group discussion operates most effectively when each member plays a specific
role. These roles may include
Chairperson Responsible for introducing the topic for discussion, explaining
the agenda or goals of the meeting, participating in and keeping discussion
focused, and helping resolve conflict fairly.
Recorder Responsible for taking notes during discussion, participating in
discussion, and organizing/copying notes to distribute to entire group later.
Participants Responsible for contributing facts or ideas to discussion,
responding constructively to others' ideas, reaching agreement or voting on
a final decision.
Guidelines for Discussions
Use these techniques to develop your group communication skills.
Listen attentively Listen carefully and respectfully to each member. Pay
attention to important ideas and details. Take notes about issues you want
to discuss later.
Contribute to the discussion Join in and share your ideas. Don't be afraid if
your ideas are new or different. Share reasons for your ideas. Avoid
sarcasm and contribute positive and helpful comments.
Be respectful Take turns speaking. Don't interrupt someone else. Avoid using
disrespectful language or dismissing other's ideas without evaluating them.
Stay on track Stay focused on the subject at hand. Avoid straying off topic, and
politely rein in those who do.
10 Conducting Interviews
Conducting a personal interview can be an effective way to get information.
Preparing for the Interview
Select your interviewee carefully. Think about the information you want to learn.
Identify who has the kind of knowledge and experience you are looking for.
Research any information by or about the person you will interview. The
background details will help you focus and get to the point during the
interview.
Prepare a list of questions. Create open- ended questions that can't be
answered simply with a "yes" or "no." Arrange your questions in order of
significance, from most important to least important.
Participating in the Interview
Consider working with a partner. You might choose one note taker and one
speaker.
Ask your questions clearly and listen carefully. Give the person that you are
interviewing plenty of time to answer.
Listen interactively and flexibly. Be prepared to follow up on a response you find
interesting, even if it was not on your initial list of questions.
Avoid arguments. Be tactful and polite.
Take notes even if you have a recording device. This will help in your write-up
of the interview. Jot down main ideas or important statements that can be
used as quotes.
Following up on the interview
Summarize your notes while they are still fresh in your mind.
Send a thank-you note to the interview subject.
TIP: Remember that as an interviewer, your role is to listen rather than to talk about
yourself. Show that you are interested in the person you are interviewing.
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1 Getting Information Electronically
Electronic resources provide you with a convenient and efficient way to gather
information.
1.1 Online Resources
When you use your computer to communicate with another computer or with
another person using a computer, you are working "online: Online resources
include commercial information services and information available on the
Internet.
What You'll Need
To access online resources, you need a computer with a modem to link you to
the Internet. Your school computer lab or resource center may be linked to
the Internet or to a commercial information service.
To use CD-ROMs, you need a computer system with a CD-ROM reader.
Commercial Information Services
You can subscribe to various services that offer information such as the following:
up-to-date news, weather, and sports reports
access to encyclopedias, magazines, newspapers, dictionaries, almanacs, and
databases (collections of information)
electronic mail (email) to and from other users
forums, or ongoing electronic conversations among users interested in a
particular topic
Internet
The Internet is a vast network of computers. News services, libraries, universities,
researchers, organizations, and government agencies use the Internet to
communicate and to distribute information. The Internet includes two key
features:
World Wide Web provides you with information on particular subjects and links
you to related topics and resources (such as the Web pages shown above).
Electronic mail (email), allows you to communicate with other email users
worldwide.
1.2 Navigating the Web
With access to the World Wide Web, you can find virtually any piece of information
once you know how to look for it. Here are some tips to get you started.
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Choose a Search Engine or a Directory
A search engine combs through Web sites looking for your topic. A directory
allows you to search within groups of databases, or collections of information
arranged for ease of retrieval, which are, in turn, grouped by subject, such as
Reference, Sports, or Entertainment.
Enter Key Words
Once you've chosen a starting point, enter the key word or words that describe
your topic. By using more than one word, you will narrow your search. For
example, using the key word "baseball" will find sites with information on
baseball. The key words "Dodgers baseball" will help you find sites with
information on the specific team.
Investigate Your Options
Once you receive the results of your search, scan the site listings and their
summaries to see which ones look promising. If you click on a site and it's not
useful, back up and try again. Sites at the top of the list usually will be more
relevant than those found farther down.
Tips for Getting the Most out of Your Search
Note the source Because anyone can put information on the Web, it's wise to
check where the information comes from. For example, sites produced by
government agencies or educational institutions tend to be more reliable
than the personal Web pages of individuals.
Refine your search If you're not getting the results you want, search again,
using more key words or different key words.
Explore other avenues One search engine may produce different results than
another, and the same goes for directories.
Link around Many Web sites have links to other sites with related content that
you might not find searching on your own.
1.3 CD-ROM
A CD-ROM (compact—disc—read-only memory) stores data that may include text,
sound, photographs, and video.
Almost any kind of information can be found on CD-ROMs, which you can use at
the library or purchase, including
encyclopedias, almanacs, and indexes
other reference books
news reports from newspapers, magazines, television, or radio
museum art collections
back issues of magazines
1.4 Library Computer Services
Many libraries offer computerized catalogs and a variety of other electronic
resources.
Computerized Catalogs
You may search for a book in a library by typing the title, author, subject, or key
words into a computer terminal. If you enter the title of a book, the screen will
display information such as the book's call number and whether it is on the shelf
or checked out of the library.
Other Electronic Resources
In addition to computerized catalogs, many libraries offer electronic versions of
books or other reference materials. They may also have a variety of indexes on
CD-ROM, which allow you to search for magazine or newspaper articles on
topics.
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2 Word Processing
Word-processing and publishing programs are a type of software that allow you to
draft, revise, edit, and format your writing and to produce neat, professionallooking papers. They also allow you to share your writing with others.
2.1 Prewriting and Drafting
A computer makes it easy to experiment with different ways of expressing and
organizing your ideas. You can use it to keep an electronic journal or portfolio,
to organize your notes in files, or to access templates for special writing
formats. It also allows you to store multiple drafts and even to add graphics to
clarify and enhance your message.
WRITING TIP Create a separate file to use as a writing notebook. Keep all of your
story starters, ideas to research, and other writing ideas in this file.
2.2 Revising and Editing
The programs that make computer hardware function are called software. One
type of software is a word-processing program. Improving the quality of your
writing becomes easier when you use a word-processing program to revise and
edit.
What You'll Need
Computer
Word-processing program
Printer
Revising a Document
Most word-processing programs allow you to make the following kinds of changes:
add or delete words
undo a change you have made in the text move text from one location in your
document to another
save a document with a new name, allowing you to keep old drafts for
reference
view more than one document at a time, so you can copy text from one
document and add it to another
Editing a Document
Many word-processing and publishing programs have the following features to help
you catch errors and polish your writing:
The spell checker automatically finds misspelled words and suggests possible
corrections.
The grammar checker spots possible grammatical errors and suggests ways
you might correct them.
The thesaurus suggests synonyms for a word you want to replace.
The dictionary will give you the definitions of words so you can be sure you
have used words correctly.
The search and replace feature searches your whole document and corrects
every occurrence of something you want to change, such as a misspelled
name.
WRITING TIP Even if you use a spell checker, you should still proofread your draft
carefully to make sure you've used the right words. For example, you may have
used there or they're when you should have used their. A spell checker will not
be able to pick up this type of error.
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2.3 Formatting Your Work
Format is the layout and appearance of your writing on the page. You may choose
your formatting options before or after you write.
Formatting Type
You may want to make changes in the typeface, type size, and type style of the
words in your document. For each of these, your word-processing or publishing
program will most likely have several options to choose from. These options
allow you to
change the typeface to create a different look for the words in your document
change the type size of the entire document or of just the headings of sections
in the paper
change the type style when necessary; for example, use italics or underline
for the titles of books and magazines
Formatting Pages
Not only can you change the way individual words look; you can also change the
way they are arranged on the page. Some of the formatting decisions you make
will depend either on how you plan to use a printout of a draft or on the
guidelines provided for an assignment.
Set the line spacing, or the amount of space you need between lines of text.
Double spacing is commonly used for final drafts. Double spacing also
allows you room to write changes and corrections as you revise and edit
drafts of your writing.
Set the margins, or the amount of white space around the edges of your text.
A one-inch margin on all sides is commonly used for final drafts.
Create a header for the top of the page or a footer for the bottom if you want to
include such information as your name, the date, or the page number on
every page.
Determine the alignment of your text. The screen below shows your options.
WRITING TIP Keep your format simple. Your goal is to create not only an attractive
document but also one that is easy to read. Your readers will have difficulty if
you change the type formatting frequently. Formatting that draws attention to
itself also draws attention away from what you have to say.
TECHNOLOGY TIP Some word-processing and publishing programs or other
software packages provide preset templates, or patterns, for writing outlines,
memos, letters, newsletters, or invitations. If you use one of these templates,
you will not need to adjust the formatting.
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2.4 Working Collaboratively
Computers allow you to share your writing electronically. Send a copy of your work
to someone via email or put it in someone's drop box if your computer is linked
to other computers on a network. Then use the feedback of your peers to help
you improve your writing.
Peer Editing on a Computer
The writer and the reader can both benefit from the convenience of peer editing on
screen, or at the computer.
Be sure to save your current draft. Then make a copy of it for each of your peer
readers.
You might have your peer readers enter their comments in a different typeface
or type style from the one you used for your text, as shown in the the
example below.
Ask each of your readers to include his or her initials in the file name.
If your computer allows you to open more than one file at a time, open each
reviewer's file and refer to the files as you revise your draft.
TECHNOLOGY TIP Some word-processing programs allow you to leave notes for
your peer readers in the side column or in a separate text box. If you wish,
leave these areas blank so your readers can write comments or questions.
Peer Editing on a Printout
Some peer readers prefer to respond to a draft on paper rather than on the
computer.
Double-space or triple-space your document so that your peer editors can
make suggestions between the lines.
Leave extra-wide margins to give your readers room to note their reactions and
questions as they read.
Print out your draft. Photocopy it if you want to share it with more than one
reader.
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3 Using Visuals
Tables, graphs, diagrams, and pictures often communicate information more
effectively than words alone do. Many word-processing and publishing
programs allow you to create visuals to use with written text.
3.1 When to Use Visuals
Use visuals when you need a clear, easily understandable way to present complex
concepts and processes or large amounts of numerical information such as
those that appear in a technical presentation. Visuals can also help to make a
presentation look more interesting.
Although you should not expect a visual to do all the work of written text, combining
words and pictures or graphics can increase a reader's understanding and
enjoyment of your writing.
What You'll Need
A graphics program to create visuals
Access to clip-art from a CD-ROM, a computer disk, or an online service
A Variety of Programs
Many word-processing and publishing programs allow you to create and insert
graphs, tables, time lines, diagrams, and flow charts into your document.
An art program allows you to create border designs for a title page or to draw an
unusual character or setting for narrative or descriptive writing.
You may also be able to add clip art, or pre-made pictures, to your document. Clip
art can be used to illustrate an idea or concept in your writing or to make your
writing more appealing for young readers.
3.2 Kinds of Visuals
Tables and Databases
Tables allow you to arrange facts or numbers into rows and columns so that your
reader can compare information more easily. In many word-processing
programs, you can create a table by choosing the number of vertical columns
and horizontal rows you need and then entering information in each box, as the
illustration shows. The kind of table shown below is often called a database. It
organizes and stores information on a subject important to the creator. In this
case the subject is babysitting. Table-formatting options allow you to change
the appearance of your chart in several ways. These options allow you to
choose the type of border
vary the size and number of columns and rows
pick a background color for the chart to set it off from the rest of the
presentation
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Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet program provides you with a preset table of rows and columns. The
columns are identified by letters and the rows by numbers. The place where a
column and row meet is called a cell. For example, the cell in the top left corner
is Al. The program is set up to perform calculations automatically, based on
formulas input by the user.
Spreadsheet p ograms allow you to present tabular information in graphs and/or
charts, as shown below.
Graphs and Charts
Use a graph or chart to help communicate complex information in a clear visual
image. For example, use a line graph to show how a trend changes over time, a
bar graph to compare statistics, or a pie chart, like the one above, to compare
percentages. Explore displaying data in more than one visual format before
deciding which will work best for you.
TECHNOLOGY TIP To help your readers easily understand the information, use a
different color or shade of gray for each section.
Other Visuals
Art and design programs allow you to create visuals for your writing. Many wordprocessing and publishing programs include the following features:
drawing tools that allow you to draw, color, and shade pictures
clip art that you can copy or change with drawing tools
page borders that you can use to decorate title pages, invitations, or brochures
text options that allow you to combine words with your illustrations
tools for making geometric shapes in flow charts, time lines, and diagrams
that show a process or sequence of events
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4 Creating a Multimedia Presentation
A multimedia presentation is a combination of text sound, and visuals such as
photographs, videos, and animation. Your audience reads, hears, and sees
your presentation at a computer, following different "paths" you create to lead
the user through the information you have gathered.
4.1 Features of Multimedia Programs
To start planning your multimedia presentation, you need to know what options are
available to you. You can combine sound, photos, videos, and animation to
enhance any text you write about your topic.
What You'll Need
Individual programs to create and edit the text, graphics, sound, and videos you
will use
A multimedia authoring program that allows you to combine these elements and
create links between screens
Sound
Including sound in your presentation can help your audience understand
information in your written text. For example, the user may be able to listen and
learn from
the pronunciation of an unfamiliar or foreign word
a speech
a recorded news interview
a musical selection
a dramatic reading of a work of literature
Photos and Videos
Photographs and live-action videos can make your subject come alive for the user.
Here are some examples:
videotaped news coverage of a historical event
videos of music, dance, or theater performances
charts and diagrams
photos of an artist's work
photos or video of a geographical setting that is important to the written text
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TECHNOLOGY TIP You can download photos, sound, and video from Internet
sources onto your computer. This process allows you to add elements to your
multimedia presentation that would usually require complex editing equipment.
Animation
Many graphics programs allow you to add animation, or movement, to the visuals in
your presentation. Animated figures add to the user's enjoyment and
understanding of what you present. You can use animation to illustrate
what happens in a story
the steps in a process
changes in a chart, graph, or diagram
how your user can explore information in your presentation
TECHNOLOGY TIP You can now find CD-ROMs with videos of things like wildlife,
weather, street scenes, and events, and other CDROMs with recordings of
famous speeches, musical selections, and dramatic readings.
4.2 Planning Your Presentation
To create a multimedia presentation, first choose your topic and decide what you
want to include. Then plan how you want your user to move through your
presentation.
Imagine that you are creating a multimedia presentation about the 1980 volcanic
eruption of Mount Saint Helens in the state of Washington. You know you want
to include the following items:
text describing the 1980 eruption of Mount Saint Helens
animated diagram showing what happens when a volcano erupts
photo of an eruption
recorded interviews with people affected by the eruption
video of rescue work and cleanup after the eruption
photo of Mount Saint Helens today, showing how much vegetation has grown
back
text about current volcano research
You can choose one of the following ways to organize your presentation:
step by step with only one path, or order, in which the user can see and hear
the information
a branching path that allows users to make some choices about what they will
see and hear, and in what order
A flow chart can help you figure out the path a user can take through your presentation. Each box in the flow chart on the following page represents something
about Mount Saint Helens for the user to read, see, or hear. The arrows on the
flow chart show a branching path the user can follow.
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Whenever boxes branch in more than one direction, it means that the user can
choose which item to see or hear first.
WRITING TIP You usually need permission from the person or organization that
owns the copyright on materials if you want to copy them. You do not need
permission, however, if you are not making money from your presentation, if
you use it only for educational purposes, and if you use only a small percentage
of the original material.
4.3 Guiding Your User
Your user will need directions to follow the path you have planned for your
multimedia presentation.
Most multimedia authoring programs allow you to create screens that include text or
audio directions that guide the user from one part of your presentation to the
next. In the example below, the user can choose between several paths, and
directions on the screen explain how to make the choice.
If you need help creating your multimedia presentation, ask your school's
technology adviser. You may also be able to get help from your classmates or
your software manual.
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Analyzing Text Features
Reading a Magazine Article
A magazine article is designed to catch and hold your interest. Learning how to
recognize the items on a magazine page will help you read even the most
complicated articles. Look at the sample magazine article as you read each
strategy below.
Strategies for Reading
A Study visuals—photos, pictures, maps—together with their captions. Visuals
help bring the topic to life.
B Read the title and other headings to get an idea of the article's topic. The title
and headings will often try to grab your attention with a question, an
exclamation, or a play on words.
C Note sections of text that are set off in some way, such as an indented
paragraph or a passage in a larger typeface. This text often summarizes the
article's main subject.
D Pay attention to terms in different typefaces, such as italics or boldface. Look for
definitions or explanations before or after these terms.
E Look for special features, such as charts or sidebars, that provide additional or
related information on the topic.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample magazine page and the tips above to help you answer the following
questions.
1. Which photos represent "talking" animals?
2. Which title or heading uses a play on the word language? Which title or heading
uses a question to grab your attention?
3. What is the magazine article's main subject?
4. Find the text that summarizes the main subject. How is it set off?
5. Which term refers to the sounds dolphins make? Which term means
"chemicals"?
6. Who or what is the subject of the sidebar?
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Say What? Dogs bark, cows moo, horses neigh. You can hear the
languages these animals speak. Now find out about some of the more
unusual ways as creatures communicate.
Dolphins
These water-loving mammals use a variety of ways to talk to each other. For
example, dolphins communicate by slapping their flukes, or tail fins, on the
water. They also use a series of whistles and clicks to exchange information.
These sounds are called phonations. Scientists believe that dolphins use
different sounds in different situations. When dolphins are in trouble, for
instance, they seem to voice a special distress call.
Now You're Speaking My Language Animals that talk to each other is
one thing, but how about animals that can talk to humans? Two gorillas named
Koko and Michael can do just that. Since the 1970s, they have been taught to
understand spoken English and use sign language to talk to their human
trainers. Koko, in particular, has made amazing progress. Today, the female
lowland gorilla can understand about 2,000 spoken words and can use more
than 500 signs.
Bees Most animals have a better sense of smell than humans. Some animals
even make chemicals called pheromones to talk with smells. Bees, for
example, have a chemical language of at least 36 pheromones. They use these
chemicals to send smell-messages. One smell may warn other bees about
trouble. Another may tell where the best flowers are.
R121
Reading a Textbook
The first page of a textbook lesson introduces you to a particular topic. The page
also provides important information that will help guide you through the rest of
the lesson. Look at the sample textbook page as you read each strategy below.
Strategies for Reading
A Preview the title and subheadings to find out the lesson's main topic and related
subtopics.
B Read the objectives that often appear at the top of the page. These objectives
establish a purpose for your reading.
C Look for a list of vocabulary terms. These words will be identified and defined
throughout the lesson.
D Find words set in special type, such as italics or boldface. Unfamiliar words are
often set in italics and defined in the text. Boldface is often used to identify the
vocabulary terms in the lesson.
E Study any graphics, such as tables or charts, on the page. Graphics provide
more detailed information on the topic.
F Examine visuals, such as drawings and diagrams, and their captions. Visuals
can sometimes present information more clearly than words can.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample textbook page and the tips above to help you answer the following
questions.
1. What is the lesson's main topic? What subtopic is covered on this page?
2. What are the lesson's objectives?
3. List the vocabulary terms for this lesson.
4. Which vocabulary term is defined on this page?
5. Find the prefix milli in Table 1-4. What does the prefix mean?
6. Read the caption that explains the picture of the metric ruler. What do the
numbers on the ruler measure? what do the lines between each pair of
numbers measure?
R122
1.4 Scientific Measurement
Like most people, you probably enjoy buying new clothes. But how do you make
sure your new clothes fit? You probably look for the right size. Sizes are a
special system of measurement used for clothes.
A special system of measurement is used in science too. The system of
measurement used by scientists all over the world is the International System of
Units, or SI. By using the same system of measurement, scientists all over can
share their data, repeat experiments, and compare results.
SI is a decimal system. This means that it is based on the number 10. The system
is easy to use because units can be made larger or smaller by moving the
decimal point. Prefixes are used to show the size of a unit. When a prefix is
added to the beginning of a unit, the unit size changes by a multiple of 10. Look
at the prefixes in Table 1-4. Notice that each prefix has its own meaning. For
example, kilo means 1000 and deci means 1/10. What does hecto mean?
Lesson Objectives
Identity the standard units of measurement used in science.
Name some tools used to make scientific measurements.
Activity Measure length, mass, volume, temperature, and time in scientific units.
New Terms
meter
liter
mass
gram
degree Celsius
second
volume
Length
The SI unit of length is the meter. A doorknob is about 1 meter above the floor. The
top of a door is about 2 meters above the floor. You will use a meterstick or
metric ruler to measure length.
Look at the metric ruler in Figure 1-7. The numbers on the ruler are centimeters.
Find the prefix centi in Table 14. Centi means 1/100, so a centimeter is 1/100 of
a meter.
That means there are 100 centimeters in 1 meter.
Figure 1-7 A metric ruler. Each centimeter is divided into 10 millimeters.
R123
Understanding Visuals
Reading Graphs and Charts
Charts and graphs help readers understand key ideas. Line graphs, like the one
below, represent data over a period of time. Use these tips and the examples
below to help you read charts and graphs more quickly and accurately.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to help you understand what the graph is about.
B Look to see how the data from the chart and graph relate to each other.
C Read the headings to see what kind of information is given.
D Read across the horizontal lines and up the vertical lines of a graph to get an
estimate, or value, of the data.
E Make sure you understand any symbols or abbreviations, such as °F
(temperature in Fahrenheit).
F Look at the credit to see if the information is up-to-date and from a respected
source.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Answer the following questions, using the chart and line graph above.
1. What information does the line graph show?
2. Use the line graph to determine which month has the highest temperature.
3. Use the chart to determine the lowest temperature. What is the difference
between the highest and lowest temperatures?
R124
Reading a Weather Map
To read a map correctly, you have to identify and understand its elements. Look at
the example as you read each strategy in this list.
Strategies for Reading
A Scan the title to find the content of the map.
B Study the key, or legend, to find out what the symbols and colors on the map
stand for.
C Look at geographic labels to understand specific places on the map.
D Notice the scale and pointer to determine distance and direction.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the map above to answer the following questions or statements.
1. What is the purpose of this map?
2. What does the symbol
mean?
3. List the areas on the map where snow is predicted.
4. Describe the weather predicted for Kansas City.
R125
Reading a Diagram
Diagrams combine pictures with a few words to provide a lot of information. Look at
the example on the opposite page as you read each of the following strategies.
Strategies for Reading
A Look at the the title to get a quick idea of what the diagram is about.
B Study the image closely to understand each part of the diagram.
C Look at the captions and the labels for more information.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
The diagram on the following page shows the different parts of a microscope. Study
the diagram, then answer the following questions using the strategies above.
1. What is the purpose of a microscope?
2. List the names of all of the magnifying lenses on the microscope.
3. Which parts of the microscope hold the slide, or the material to be magnified?
4. Which parts of the microscope have to do with lighting the slide?
5. Where on the microscope can you adjust your vision?
6. Find the high-power objective and the low-power objective. Which of the two
gives you a closer view?
R126
COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
A microscope is a tool used to make tiny objects look larger. A compound
microscope has two or more lenses.
Eyepiece
Contains the magnifying lens you look through (10x)
Body tube
Connects the eyepiece and revolving nosepiece
Coarse adjustment
Focuses the image under low power
Revolving nosepiece
Holds and turns the objectives into viewing position,
Fine adjustment
Sharpens the image under low and high power
High-power objective
Contains a high-power magnifying lens (40x)
Arm
Supports the body tube
Low-power objective
Contains a low-power magnifying lens 110x
Stage clips
Hold the microscope slide in place .
Stage
Supports the microscope slide
Diaphragm
Controls the amount of light that enters the microscope
Mirror
Directs light through the object being viewed and into the microscope
Base
Supports the microscope
Figure 1-13 This compound microscope is similar to the one you will use in life
science. Learn the name and function of each part.
R127
Recognizing Text Structures
Main Idea and Supporting Details
The main idea in a paragraph is its most important point. Details in the paragraph
support the main idea. Identifying the main idea will help you understand a
paragraph's message without having to memorize all of the details. Use the
following strategies to help you identify a paragraph's main idea and supporting
details.
Strategies for Reading
Look for the main idea, which is often the first sentence in a paragraph.
Use the main idea to help you summarize the point of the paragraph.
Identify specific details, including facts and examples, that support the main
idea.
What Kind of Man Was Columbus?
Columbus must have had a magnetic personality.
He wed a woman above his social position. He won support for an idea that had
never been tried before. And he talked his fearful sailors out of mutiny with no
show of force. He even convinced Ferdinand and Isabella to let him make a
fourth voyage after the first _three failed to produce the wealth of the Indies.
—from Kids Discover
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Copy the following paragraph. Underline the main idea. Circle the details that
support the main idea.
In Columbus's time, doctors did not know how to treat many illnesses. For example,
when a terrible plague struck Europe, there was no medicine to fight the
disease. So doctors struggled to find a cure. One doctor told his patients that
inhaling the smell of a goat would combat the disease. Others treated patients
by removing some of their blood. Of course, neither cure worked.
R128
Problem and Solution
Does the proposed solution to a problem make sense? In order to decide, you
need to look at each part of the text. Use the following strategies to read the
text below.
Strategies for Reading
Look at the beginning or middle of a paragraph to find the problem.
Look for the details that explain the problem.
Look for the proposed solution.
Identify the details that support the proposed solution.
Think about whether the solution is a good one.
After-School Blues by Emily Kling
For years, the neighbors of Maywood Middle School have complained about
students standing around after school. Every day at three o'clock, they say,
students hang around, blocking the sidewalks, horsing around in people's front
yards, and leaving behind candy wrappers and soda cans.
The students, on the other hand, feel they have nowhere else to go. The local parks
are used by after-school programs for younger kids. Also, nearby restaurants
are too expensive for students.
These students are not bad kids. They just want to spend time with their friends
before they go home for the evening. Why not open up the school gym and
cafeteria for students after school? The school could provide some basic sports
equipment and supervision. Then students would have time to play around and
relax, and the neighbors would have nothing to complain about.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
After reading the text above, answer these questions.
1. In the third paragraph, which sentence explains the proposed solution?
2. Identity one detail that supports the solution.
3. Do you think the solution is a good one? Explain your opinion.
R129
Sequence
It's important to understand the sequence, or order of events, in texts that you
read. That way you know what happens and why. Read the tips below to make
sure a sequence is clear to you. Then look at the example on the opposite
page.
Strategies for Reading
Read through the passage and think about what the main steps, or stages,
are.
Look for words and phrases that signal time: today, Monday, now, in an
hour.
Look for words and phrases that signal order: at first, during, then, once.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the passage on the next page, which describes how a butterfly grows and
develops. Use the information from the passage and the tips above to answer
the questions.
1. List each of the four main stages of a butterfly's life.
2. Record any words or phrases that signal time or order. An example is highlighted
for you in the first paragraph.
3. Use the information from the passage to write captions for each of the steps
illustrated below. Make sure to include signal words in your sentences.
R130
A Butterfly Gets Its Wings
How does a butterfly get its wings? During its life, the butterfly goes through
different growth stages. There are four main stages altogether: 1) the egg, 2)
the caterpillar, 3) the pupa, and 4) the adult. The ancient Greeks called this
whole process metamorphosis, a word we still use today.
At first, the butterfly is a single slimy egg, no larger than a fingertip. (Imagine its
baby pictures!) The baby insect grows within the egg until it is ready to hatch.
For most types of butterflies, this first stage lasts about 10 days. When the egg
cracks open, a caterpillar crawls out.
In the second stage, the caterpillar spends most of its time eating and growing (just
like a teenager!). As the caterpillar becomes bigger, it sheds its spiky or fuzzy
skin. This process is called molting. A caterpillar molts several times during its
life. Once the caterpillar has shed its skin for the last time, it becomes a pupa.
In the third stage, the pupa immediately grows a hard shell called a chrysalis. Then,
inside the chrysalis, the pupa goes through the changes that will make it a
butterfly. The pupa's hormones turn its body into wings, antennas, and other
butterfly parts. After all the changes are complete, the shell splits open. A
butterfly is ready to make its entrance.
Finally, the adult butterfly breaks from the chrysalis. Its body, however, doesn't look
quite right. It's all soft and wrinkly. As air and blood are pumped through the
butterfly's body, it starts to look more like its usual self. In a short time, the
butterfly is ready to try out its new wings. With a few flutters, it's off and away!
R131
Cause and Effect
A cause is an event. An effect is something that happens as a result of that event.
Identifying causes and effects helps you understand how events are related.
The tips below can help you find causes and effects in any reading.
Strategies for Reading
Look for an action or event that answers the question "What happened?" This is
the effect.
Look for an action or event that answers the question "Why did it happen?" This
is the cause.
Identify words that signal causes and effects, such as because, as a result,
consequently, led to, and since.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the cause-and-effect passage on the next page. Then answer the following
questions. Notice that the first cause and effect in the passage are highlighted.
1. Sometimes a cause has more than one effect. List the three effects that occurred
because hunters wanted the biggest tusks they could find.
2. List some words in the passage that signal causes and effects. The first one is
highlighted for you.
3. Copy the diagram below. Use the causes and effects in the second paragraph to
complete the diagram.
R132
African Elephants at Risk
For hundreds of years, African elephants have been killed for their ivory tusks.
However, in the 1970s, the demand for ivory greatly increased. As a result the
number of African elephants greatly decreased. In addition, since hunters
wanted the biggest tusks they could find, they killed the biggest elephants. Not
surprisingly, many of the largest elephants have vanished. Today, tusks are
only about half the size they were a hundred years ago.
Between 1979 and 1989, the African elephant population was nearly cut in half.
Because the numbers were so low, the African elephant was placed on the
endangered species list. Finally, in 1989, a law was passed that put an end to
international ivory trade. Consequently, the number of African elephants began
to increase. Some African countries, however, objected to the law. These
countries depend on the ivory trade. Their objections led to a slight loosening of
the law in 1997. Today, some people fear that great numbers of elephants will
be killed again.
R133
Comparison and Contrast
A comparison points out how two things are the same. A contrast points out how
they are different. Comparisons and contrasts are important because they show
how things or ideas are related. Use the following tips when you read any text
that includes comparisons and contrasts, such as the example on the right.
Strategies for Reading
Watch for direct statements of comparisons and contrasts: "These are alike
because ... " or "There are some differences, such as...."
Look for words and phrases that signal comparisons, including also, in the
same way, both, and too.
Pay attention to words and phrases that signal contrasts, such as on the
other hand, yet, but and unlike.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the article on the opposite page. Then answer the questions, using
information from the article and the tips above.
1. List some words and phrases that signal comparisons. The first one is highlighted
for you.
2. List some words and phrases that signal contrasts. The first one is highlighted for
you.
3. In your own words, explain what a "mirror-image" twin is.
4. A Venn diagram shows how two subjects are similar and how they are different.
Copy this diagram, adding at least two similarities and two differences.
R134
Face to Face with Twins
Annie and Elizabeth say they're alike in many ways and different in others. That's
common among identical twins. Annie and Elizabeth are both right-handed.
They both wear contact lenses.
Their hair looks the same. They lost their baby teeth at about the same time. And
they both got their only cavity in the same tooth when they were 9.
"But Annie wore braces and I didn't," says Elizabeth, left. "Annie has asthma and I
don't. Plus Annie has more freckles." The twins' mother often got confused
when the girls were babies. How could she tell them apart? One of Elizabeth's
toes was more crooked than Annie's.
About 10 percent of identical twins are "mirror-image" twins: For example, one is
right-handed, and the other is left-handed. But all twins have different
fingerprints.
Annie and Elizabeth say they're best friends, yet competitive. "We fight over
everything, hut we do have different tastes in guys," says Annie. Elizabeth
adds, "Sometimes being a twin is so weird. It's also fun and kind of cool." Annie
agrees.
—from National Geographic World
R135
Argument
An argument is an opinion backed up with reasons and facts. Examining an
opinion and the reasons that back it up will help you decide if the opinion makes
sense. The following tips will help you read an argument.
Strategies for Reading
Look for words that signal an opinion: I think, feel, argue, or claim.
Look for reasons, facts, or expert opinions that support the argument.
Look for overgeneralizations or other errors in reasoning that may affect the
argument.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the argument on the next page and answer the following questions.
1. List some words that signal an opinion. The first one is highlighted for you.
2. List some phrases that give the author's opinion.
3. Which statement is not supported by reasons or facts?
4. The author presents both sides of the issue. Copy and complete the chart below.
The first one has been done for you.
R136
Save Spirit Week
by David Pinsky
Teachers at Harrison Middle School feel that Spirit Week should be canceled. They
argue that it interrupts classes in many ways. Students may forget to do their
homework as they concentrate on the Spirit Week themes. A few students skip
classes and some go to a different lunch period. Students spend extra time in
the bathrooms combing their hair and adjusting their outfits. Some students
goof around in class and find it hard to settle down. If Spirit Week isn't
canceled, teachers warn that the school will no longer be a good place to learn.
We, the students, fed that Spirit Week encourages us to be better students. Spirit
Week is a way for us to show our creativity. For example, last year we had a
70s theme. Students learned how a person dressed during this decade, and
they tried to imitate those fashions. Such a theme teaches us about culture and
history. Spirit Week also gives us a feeling of pride. At the end of the week, we
wear our school colors and support our basketball team against our rivals, the
Wildcats. Finally, we feel that Spirit Week teaches us how to work in groups and
how to plan and organize an event. Everyone loves Spirit Week. We ask the
Harrison School Board to consider our plea and save Spirit Week.
R137
Reading in the Content Areas
Social Studies
Social studies class becomes easier when you understand how your textbook's
words, pictures, and maps work together to give you information. Following
these tips can make you a better reader of social studies lessons. As you read
the tips, look at the sample lesson on the right-hand page.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the title to get the main idea of the lesson.
B The subheads tell you some of the major points the lesson covers.
C Carefully read the text, giving special attention to boldfaced or underlined
vocabulary terms. These terms explain important ideas and are often on tests.
D Look closely at maps and map titles. Think about how the map and the text are
related.
E Look at pictures and read the captions. These can help you learn and remember
key points.
F Think about ways that the information is organized. Does the text compare
and contrast two people or things? Does it describe causes and effects? Is
there a clear sequence of events?
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Carefully read the textbook page at right. Use the information from the page and
from the tips above to answer these questions.
1. What area was the birthplace of the Renaissance?
2. List the two vocabulary terms from the lesson and define those terms.
3. What year does the map show?
4. what product made the city-state of Florence wealthy?
5. How was the government of Italy different from the governments of other
European countries?
R138
The Birthplace of the Renaissance
The word Renaissance comes from a Latin word that means rebirth or revival. 'file
term is used to describe a renewed attention to ideas from classical Greek and
Roman culture. This renewal occurred first in northern Italy and then spread
through Europe between the 1300s and mid-1600s.
Italian City-States
During the late Middle Ages. the government of Italy was different from those of
other countries in Europe. In France and England. for example. strong central
governments were forming. However, at the beginning of the Italian Renaissance. Italy was made up of about 250 small states. Most of these states
were ruled by cities and were called city-states. Some of the cities were small,
hut others, like Venice and Milan, had as many as 100,000 people. Look at the
map on this page to see how Italy was divided at this time.
Each Italian city-state was independent. All had formed when townspeople began to
free themselves from the control of feudal landlords in the 1100s. Some Italian
city-states had a republican form of government. A republic is a government
whose head of state is not a monarch. These cities were not republics like the
U.S., as only a few people got to vote, and the cities were mostly run by a few
rich families. Other city-states were ruled by a tyrant. or absolute ruler. These
tyrants often passed on their jobs to their children, just like kings. Some even
ruled so-called "republics," but controlled the elections.
The Ruling Class
Florence's ruling class was made up of about 800 of the city's wealthiest families.
They were aristo crats or merchants and bankers who often led the major
guilds. To maintain their control, members of the ruling families often excluded
others from government and guilds.
These families lived in luxurious palaces that often took up an entire city block.
They used their wealth to beautify their cities by hiring architects to design and
build palaces. Inside these palaces, each family usually had an elaborate court
of attendants. The court included family members and political advisers, as well
as leading artists and scholars.
R139
Science
Reading in science will be easier when you understand how the explanations,
drawings, and special terms work together. Use the strategies below to help
you better understand your science textbook. Look at the examples on the
opposite page as you read each strategy in this list.
Strategies for Reading
A Preview the title and subheadings on the page to see what science concepts
will be covered.
B Look for boldface and italic words that appear in the text. Look for definitions of
those words.
C Many science pages also break information down into parts or categories. Look
for signal words, such as first, second, and third, that show how the parts are
broken down.
D Look for references to numbered figures in the text.
E Then look in the margin for these figures, which are diagrams or pictures with
captions. See how they illustrate and explain the text.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample science page to help you answer the following questions.
1. What science concept will be covered in this lesson?
2. List the two subheads on the page.
3. Briefly explain the difference between the central nervous system and the
peripheral nervous system.
4. In the third, fourth, and fifth paragraphs, what are the signal words that introduce
the three different functions of the nervous system?
5. Look at the diagram. Which part of the nervous system is directly connected to
the brain?
R140
17.1 The Nervous System
The nervous system is a group of organs that process information. In many ways,
the nervous system is like a computer. It receives information from its
surroundings. analyzes that information, and then responds in some way. Like
a computer, the nervous system has a memory and can solve problems.
Parts and Functions of the Nervous System
As shown in Figure 17-1, the nervous system can be divided into two main parts.
One part, called the central nervous system, includes the brain and spinal
cord. Notice that the spinal cord is a cable of nerves extending from the base
of the brain almost to the end of the spine. The spinal cord relays messages
between the brain and all parts of the body. The other part, called the
peripheral [pa rif' a roll nervous system, includes all the nerves that connect
the brain and spinal cord with other parts of the body. For example, nerves that
connect the brain with the eyes and ears are part of the peripheral nervous
system. So are nerves that connect the spinal cord with muscles in the arms
and legs.
The nervous system performs several important functions for your body. First, it
receives information from the environment through special nerve endings called
receptors. Receptors are often located in sense organs. Your eyes, ears, nose,
tongue, and skin all contain receptors. Each type of receptor receives a
different type of information. Suppose you eat an apple. Receptors in your nose
receive information about the apple's odor, but receptors in your tongue receive
information about the apple's taste.
Second, the nervous system directs your thought processes. Whenever you
remember a telephone number, solve a math problem, or daydream about a
special person, you are using your nervous system.
Third, the nervous system controls your moven) :tits. For example, in order for you
to throw a ball, your brain must send messages along nerves to the muscles in
your arm. The messages direct the muscles to move your bones so that you
can throw the ball.
Neurons and Impulses
The brain, spinal cord, and nerves are made of nerve cells, or neurons. Figure 17-2
shows the parts of a a neuron. The cell body contains the nucleus and most of
the le cytoplasm. Dendrites are fibers that branch off the cell body
Lesson Objectives
Describe the parts and functions of the nervous system.
Explain how neurons carry impulses throughout the body.
Compare two main kinds of impulse pathways.
Activity State a conclusion about the kind of impulse pathway that causes
certain movements.
New Terms
central nervous system
spinal cord
peripheral nervous system
receptors
neurons
impulse
sensory neurons
motor neurons
association neurons
reflex
Figure 17-1 Nerve length from 1 cm to over I m.
R141
Mathematics
Reading in mathematics is different from reading in all other subjects. Use the
strategies below to help you better understand your mathematics textbook.
Look at the examples on the opposite page as you read each strategy in this
list.
Strategies for Reading
A Preview the title and headings on the page to see what mathematics concepts
will be covered.
B Read explanations carefully.
C Find the objectives for the lesson.
D Pay special attention to any boldface or italic words. Look for definitions of
those words.
E Look for special features such as notes and tips that provide more help or
information.
F Study any worked-out solutions to example problems.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the sample mathematics page to help you answer the following questions.
1. What mathematics concepts will be covered in this lesson?
2. Find a definition for the word data and write it down.
3. List a tip that helps you understand the word data.
4. What part of the explanation tells why numerical data should be organized?
5. List the two groups of words in Example 1 that tell you what to do.
R142
---see page R143 for content
R143
Reading Beyond the Classroom
Reading a Public Notice
If you don't read public notices, you might miss out on important events happening
in your area. These tips can help you read all kinds of public notices. As you
read each tip, look at the sample notice on the right.
Strategies for Reading
A Read the notice's title, if it has one. The title will tell you what the notice is about.
B Ask yourself, "Could the information in this notice affect me or someone I
know?" If your answer is yes, then you should pay attention to it.
C Read any instructions—actions the notice is asking or telling you to take.
D Look for a logo, credit, or other way of telling who created the notice.
E Watch for details that tell you how you can find out more on the topic.
F Look for special features designed to make the notice easier to understand,
such as instructions in more than one language.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the notice on the opposite page carefully and answer the questions below.
1. What is this notice about?
2. Who is allowed to participate in activities at the youth center?
3. Which activity does not require parental permission?
4. Who created the notice?
5. Where can you get more information?
6. Why is it especially important to sign up early for the swim class?
R144
UPCOMING ACTIVITIES
at the Springfield Youth Center
All Springfield residents ages 7 to 18 are eligible to take part. Space is limited, so
sign up now!
Youth Soccer
Having a good time is our goal! Teams are forming for ages 7 to 9, 10 to 12, and 13
to 18. Beginners are welcome. See page 14 for information on dates, times,
locations, and fees. Parental permission is required to participate. Bring cleats
and shin pads if you own them.
Learn to Swim
This class, taught by qualified instructors, will take you from treading water to dog
paddling to the backstroke. It is held at the Richmond Aquatic Center at 1129
North Halsted. See page 14 for dates, times, and fees. This class is limited to
15 students. Parental permission is required to participate.
Jazz Band
Bring a musical instrument and your creative skills to the Youth Center at 4 P.M. on
Tuesdays. Certified music teacher Chris Pizziferro will provide supervision and
instruction. Class will not be held on April 4.
Springfield Youth Center
280 West Clark St.
Springfield, CA 90076-3304
For information: 555-4832
Para los hispanohablantes, llame por favor a 555-4844 Home page:
http://www.springfield.ca.gov/youthctr.home.html
R145
Reading a Web Page
You can use the World Wide Web to find information for reports, projects, or just for
fun. The tips below will help you understand all kinds of Web pages. As you
read the tips, look at the sample Web pages on the right.
Strategies for Reading
A The page's Web address, sometimes called a URL, tells you where you are.
B Read the title of the page—it's usually near the top. It will give you a general idea
of what topics the page covers.
C Look for menu bars along the top, bottom, or side of the page. These tell you
about other parts of the site.
D Notice any links to related pages. Links are often underlined words.
E Some sites have interactive areas where you can ask a question or tell the site's
creators what you think of their work.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Read the two Web pages on the right-hand page. One is from a search engine that
shows responses to a student's search. The other is from a site linked to one of
those responses. Then use the information from the pages and the tips above
to answer these questions.
1. List the Web address of each page.
2. What question did the student ask on the "Look Quick" site?
3. On the "All About Asteroids" page, which link would you click on if you wanted to
learn about asteroids and dinosaurs?
4. Which link would you click on to find a list of sources the "All About Asteroids"
creators used?
5. What information is given on the "All About Asteroids" page?
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---see page R147 for content
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Reading a Bus Schedule
Knowing how to read a schedule accurately will help you get to places on time.
Look at the example as you read each strategy in this list.
Strategies for Reading
A Scan the title to learn what the schedule covers.
B Look at labels of dates or days of the week to learn when the schedule is in
operation.
C Study place labels, such as stations, to understand specific stops on the
schedule.
D Look at expressions of time to know what hours or minutes are listed on the
schedule.
PRACTICE AND APPLY
Use the schedule above to answer the following questions or statements.
1. What main street do the buses on this route take?
2. Is this a weekday, weekend, or holiday schedule?
3. What are the fourth and fifth stops on this route.
4. What time would you arrive at Three Rivers Station if you caught the 8:50 A.M.
bus from Lawrence Station?
5. In what direction do the buses on this route travel?
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Glossary of Literary and Reading Terms
Act An act is a major section of a play. Each act may be further divided into smaller
sections, called scenes. The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street has two acts.
African-American Folk Tale African- American folk tales are examples of oral
literature. They developed among Africans who had been transported to
America as slaves and were passed down orally for generations. "The People
Could Fly" is an example of a written retelling of an African- American folk tale.
See also Oral Literature.
Alliteration Alliteration is a repetition of a sound or letter at the beginning of words.
Writers use alliteration to emphasize particular words and to give their writing a
musical quality. Note the repetition of the c sound in this line:
Over the cobbles he clattered and clashed ... —Alfred Noyes, from' The
Highwayman"
See pages 193, 461.
Allusion An allusion is a reference to a famous person, place, event, or work of
literature. In "A Crown of Wild Olive," the author makes an allusion to the war
that broke out between Athens and Sparta in 431 B.C., known by historians as
the Peloponnesian War.
Analogy An analogy is a point-by-point comparison between two apparently
dissimilar things made to clarify a certain point about one of them. In "Amigo
Brothers" Felix draws an analogy between the boxing match he and his friend
Antonio must fight and the match in the boxing movie The Champion in order to
put himself into a competitive frame of mind.
When Felix finally left the theater, he had figured out how to psyche himself for
tomorrow's fight. It was Felix the Champion vs. Antonio the Challenger.
—Piri Thomas, from "Amigo Brothers"
Analysis Analysis is a process of breaking something down into its elements so
that they can be examined individually. When you analyze a literary work, you
examine its parts in order to understand how they work together in the piece as
a whole.
Anecdote An anecdote is a short, entertaining account about a person or an event.
Anecdotes are often included in larger works to entertain or make a point. In the
excerpt from Growing Up, Russell Baker tells an amusing anecdote about his
sister, Doris, returning some cheese to a grocery store.
Antagonist In a story, an antagonist is a force working against the protagonist, or
main character; an antagonist can be another character, society, or a force
within the main character. In "The Scholarship Jacket," Mr. Boone, the math
teacher, is an antagonist because he opposes Martha's right to the scholarship
jacket.
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Mr. Boone's voice sounded calm and quiet. "Look. Joann's father is not only on the
Board, he owns the only store in town: we could say it was a close tie and—"
—Marta Salinas, from "The Scholarship Jacket" See also Protagonist.
Author's Perspective An author's perspective is the author's beliefs or attitudes as
expressed in his or her work. In "Eleanor Roosevelt," William Jay Jacobs's
perspective is that Eleanor Roosevelt was a remarkable woman because she
survived a painful childhood and went on to become a great humanitarian. An
author usually expresses his or her perspective through voice and tone.
See also Voice, Tone.
Author's Purpose An author's purpose is his or her reason for creating a particular
work. The purpose may be to entertain, to explain or inform, to express an
opinion, or to persuade readers to do or believe something. An author may
have more than one purpose for writing, but usually one is the most important.
See pages 101, 414, 415.
Autobiography An autobiography is a form of nonfiction in which a person tells the
story of his or her own life. Jackie Robinson's I Never Had It Made is an
example of autobiography.
See pages 83, 296.
Biographer See Biography.
Biography A biography is the story of a person's life, written by someone else. The
subjects of biographies are often famous people, as in William Jay Jacobs's
"Eleanor Roosevelt:' A biographer is one who writes, composes, or produces a
biography.
See pages 83, 98.
Cast of Characters In the script of a play, a cast of characters is a list of all the
characters in the play, usually in order of appearance. This list is usually found
at the beginning of the script.
Cause and Effect Two events are related as cause and effect when one event
brings about the other. The event that happens first is the cause; the one that
follows is the effect. This statement shows a cause-andeffect relationship:
He pointed out that I couldn't play for a few days anyhow because of my bum arm.
—Jackie Robinson, from The Noble Experiment"
See pages 29, 109, 381, 708, 709.
Character A character is a person, an animal, or an imaginary creature that takes
part in the action of a literary work. Generally, a work focuses on one or more
main characters (also called major characters), but it may also include less
important characters, called minor characters. Characters who change little, if at
all, are called static characters. Characters who change significantly are called
dynamic characters. Character traits are those aspects of a character's
personality that are permanent and consistent, unlike feelings and emotions.
Character Motives See Motivation.
See pages 17, 62, 161, 216, 589.
Characterization Characterization includes all the techniques writers use to create
and develop characters. There are four basic methods of developing a
character: (1) presenting the character's words and actions, (2) presenting the
character's thoughts, (3) describing the character's appearance, and (4)
showing what others think about the character. In "An Hour with Abuelo,"
Arturo's description
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of his reading characterizes him as a motivated student.
I don't have much time left of my summer vacation, and there's a stack of books
next to my bed I've got to read if I'm going to get into the AP English class I
want.
—Judith Ortiz Cofer, from -An Hour with Abuelo"
See pages 62, 216, 586, 629.
Chronological Order Chronological order is the order in which events happen in
time. In the biography "Eleanor Roosevelt," the events of Roosevelt's life are
told in chronological order, beginning with her birth and ending with her death.
See pages 86, 87.
Clarifying The process of pausing while reading to review previous events in a
work and to check one's understanding is called clarifying. Readers stop to
reflect on what they know, to make inferences about what is happening, and to
better understand what they are reading.
See pages 4, 391, 458.
Climax In the plot of a story or play, the climax (or turning point) is the point of
maximum interest. At the climax, the conflict is resolved and the outcome of the
plot becomes clear. The climax of "The War of the Wall," for example, occurs
when the neighborhood kids return and see the finished mural for the first time.
See also Conflict, Plot.
Comedy A comedy is a dramatic work that is meant to be light, often humorous in
tone, and usually ends happily with a peaceful resolution of the main conflict.
See also Farce.
Comparison The process of pointing out what two or more things have in common
is called making a comparison. In the excerpt from Boy: Tales of Childhood,
Roald Dahl compares Mr. Coombes, the headmaster of Llandaff school, as he
opens the school door to an avenging angel:
Suddenly it swung open, and through it, like the angel of death, strode Mr.
Coombes....
—Roald Dahl, from Boy: Mks of Childhood
See also Metaphor, Simile.
Conflict Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces. In an external conflict, such
as the battle between Rikki and the cobras in "Rikki-tikki-tavi," a character
struggles against another character or against some outside force. Internal
conflict, on the other hand, is a struggle that is within a character. In "Eleanor
Roosevelt," for example, the young Eleanor experiences internal conflict after
her father's death.
For many months after her father's death she pretended that he was still alive.
—William Jay Jacobs, from "Eleanor Roosevelt"
See pages 34, 118.
Connecting A reader's process of relating the content of a literary work to his or her
own knowledge and experience is called connecting. In "A Day's Wait," for
example, Schatz's fever may lead readers to recall their own experiences of
being ill.
See pages 19, 278, 533.
Connotation A word's connotations are the ideas and feelings associated with the
word, as opposed to its dictionary definition. For example, the word mother, in
addition to its basic meaning ("a female parent"), has connotations of love,
warmth, and security.
Context Clues Unfamiliar words are often surrounded by words or phrases—called
context clues—that help readers understand
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their meaning. A context clue may be a definition, a synonym, an example, a
comparison or contrast, or any other expression that enables readers to infer
the word's meaning.
Contrast The process of pointing out differences between things is called contrast.
In "Last Cover," for example, the narrator contrasts himself with his brother,
Colin, when he says,
I was following in Father's footsteps, true to form, but Colin threatened to break the
family tradition... .
—Paul Annixter, from -Last Cover"
Couplet A couplet is a rhymed pair of lines in a poem. Shel Silverstein's "Sarah
Cynthia Sylvia Stout Would Not Take the Garbage Out" is written almost
completely in couplets.
The garbage reached across the state, From New York to the Golden Gate.
—Shel Silverstein, from "Sarah Cynthia Sylvia Stout Would Not Take the Garbage
Out"
Deductive Reasoning In nonfiction the structure of a text may be organized using
deductive reasoning. Deductive reasoning is the process of logical reasoning
from principles to specific instances, or reasoning from whole to part.
See also Inductive Reasoning, Structure.
Denotation A word's denotation is its dictionary definition.
See also Connotation.
Denouement See Plot
Description Description is the process by which a writer creates a picture in
readers' imaginations. A good description includes details that enable readers
to visualize a scene, a character, or an object.
Details, Sensory Words and phrases that help readers see, hear, taste, feel, even
smell what an author is describing are called sensory details. Note the sensory
details in this passage from "The Scholarship Jacket":
There was a cool breeze blowing and a sweet smell of mesquite fruit in the air, but I
didn't appreciate it. I kicked at a dirt clod. I wanted that jacket so much.
—Marta Salinas, from The Scholarship Jacket"
Dialect A dialect is a form of language that is spoken in a certain place or by a
certain group of people. Dialects of a language may differ from one another in
pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. In the excerpt Mrs. Pratchett speaks a
dialect of the British working class:
"Let's 'ave a look at some of them Cully ones."
—Roald Dahl, from Boy: Tales of Childhood
See pages 26, 192, 546, 772.
Dialogue The words that characters speak aloud are called dialogue. In most
literary works, dialogue is set off with quotation marks. In play scripts, however,
each character's dialogue simply follows his or her name.
See page 248.
Drama A drama, or play, is a form of literature meant to be performed by actors
before an audience. In drama, the characters' dialogue and actions tell the
story. A playwright, or dramatist, is one who writes plays. Plays are generally
performed live on a stage in a theater, or they may be filmed or broadcast.
See also Prop, Scenery, Script, Stage.
Drawing Conclusions Combining several pieces of information to make an
inference is called drawing a conclusion. A reader's
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conclusions may be based on the details presented in a literary work, on his or
her previous inferences, or on a combination of these.
See pages 206, 590, 591.
Dynamic Character See Character.
Essay An essay is a short work of nonfiction that deals with a single subject. One
type of essay, such as "Homeless," emphasizes personal feelings and is called
a personal essay. Another, such as "The Eternal Frontier," is written primarily to
convey information and persuade the reader. This type is called a persuasive
essay.
See pages 43, 101, 467.
Evaluating Evaluating is the process of judging the worth of something or
someone. A work of literature, or any of its parts, may be evaluated in terms of
its entertainment value, its believability, its originality, or its emotional power.
See page 463.
Exaggeration An extreme overstatement of an idea is called an exaggeration, and
is often used for purposes of emphasis
or humor. Exaggeration is used as a form of irony, along with understatement and
sarcasm. In the excerpt from Growing Up, Russell Baker uses exaggeration to
emphasize the irony in the reverence the representative from the Saturday
Evening Post has for his product:
He had brought the canvas bag with him. He presented it with reverence fit for a
chasuble.
—Russell Baker, from Growing up
See also Irony, Sarcasm, Understatement.
Exposition Exposition, which is usually found at the beginning of a story or play,
serves to introduce the main characters, to describe the setting, and sometimes
to establish the conflict. In "The War of the Wall," for example, the first three
paragraphs provide most of the exposition.
See also Plot.
Extended Metaphor See Metaphor.
External Conflict See Conflict
Fable A fable is a brief story that teaches a lesson about human nature. In many
fables, animals act and speak, like human beings. Usually, a fable—"Ant and
Grasshopper," for example—concludes with a moral.
See page 311, 315, 321, 796.
Fact and Opinion A fact is a statement that can be proved, such as "April has 30
days:' An opinion, in contrast, is a statement that cannot be proved, such as
"April is the nicest month of the year Opinions usually reflect personal beliefs
and are often debatable.
Falling Action See Plot
Fantasy A fantasy is a story that takes place in an unreal, imaginary world, such as
the garden in "The Serial Garden!' Fantasies often involve magic or characters
with superhuman powers.
See pages 412, 455.
Farce A farce is a type of exaggerated comedy that contains an absurd plot,
ridiculous situations, and humorous dialogue. The main purpose of farce is to
keep the audience laughing. Neil Simon's A Defenseless Creature is a farce.
WOMAN. (Pointing an evil finger at KISTUNOV, she jumps on the desk and
punctuates each sentence by stepping on his desk bell.) A curse! A curse on
your bank! I put on a curse on you and your depositors! May the money in your
vaults turn to potatoes!
—Neil Simon, from A Defenseless Creature
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Fiction Fiction is prose writing that tells an imaginary story. The writer of a fictional
work may invent all the events and characters in it or may base parts of the
story on real people or events.
Figurative Language Authors use figurative language to create fresh and original
descriptions. Figurative expressions, while not literally true, help readers picture
ordinary things in new ways. In many, one thing is described in terms of
another—as when this speaker explains:
an ocean would never laugh if clouds weren't there to kiss her tears
—Nikki Giovanni, from "The World Is Not A Pleasant Place To Be"
See page 194.
See also Metaphor, Personification, Simile.
Flashback In a literary work, a flashback is an interruption of the action to present a
scene that took place at an earlier time. In "Last Cover," for example, a
flashback is used to show how Colin found Bandit.
We'd taken the young fox into the kitchen, all of us, except Father, gone a bit silly
over the little thing. Colin had held it in his arms and fed it warm milk from a
spoon.
—Paul Annixter, from "Last Cover"
Foil A character who provides a striking contrast to a main character is called a foil.
The foil helps make the main character's qualities apparent to the reader. For
example, Bess acts as a foil for Lottie in "The Richer, the Poorer:"
Folklore The traditions, customs, and stories that are passed down within a culture
are known as its folklore. Folklore includes various types of literature, such as
legends, folk tales, myths, trickster tales, and fables.
Folk Tale A folk tale is a story that has been passed from generation to generation
by word of mouth. Folk tales may be set in the distant past and involve
supernatural events, and the characters in them may be animals, people, or
superhuman beings. "The Force of Luck" is an example of a folk tale.
See page 796.
Foreshadowing Foreshadowing occurs when a writer provides hints that suggest
future events in a story. For example, in "Amigo Brothers" the rivalry between
the two friends anticipates elements in, and gives readers hints about, the
boxing match.
Felix watched his friend disappear from view, throwing rights and lefts.
—Piri Thomas, from -Amigo Brothers"
Form A literary work's form is its structure or organization. The form of a poem
includes the arrangement of words and lines on the page. Some poems follow
predictable patterns, with the same number of syllables in each line and the
same number of lines in each stanza. Other poems, like Langston Hughes's "To
You," have irregular forms.
See page 192.
Free Verse Poetry without regular patterns of rhyme and rhythm is called free
verse. Some poets use free verse to capture the sounds and rhythms of
ordinary speech. "Mooses" is an example of a poem written in free verse.
The goofy Moose, the walking house-frame, Is lost In the forest. He bumps, he
blunders, he stands.
—Ted Hughes, from "Mooses"
See page 204.
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Generalization A generalization is a broad statement about an entire group, such
as "Novels take longer to read than short stories:" Not all generalizations are
true. Some are too broad or not supported by sufficient evidence, like the
statement
"All seventh graders are tall!'
Genre A type or category of literature is called a genre. The main literary genres
are fiction, nonfiction, poetry, and drama.
Haiku Haiku is a traditional form of Japanese poetry. A haiku normally has three
lines and describes a single moment, feeling, or thing. In a traditional haiku, the
first and third lines contain five syllables each, and the second line contains
seven syllables.
Historical Fiction Historical fiction is fiction that is set in the past. It may contain
references to actual people and events of the past. Though based in fact, it also
contains fictional elements such as description and dialogue. "A Crown of Wild
Olive" is an example of historical fiction.
See pages 706, 726.
Humor Humor is a quality that provokes laughter or amusement. Writers create
humor through exaggeration, amusing descriptions, irony, and witty and
insightful dialogue. Shel Silverstein's "Sarah Cynthia Sylvia Stout Would Not
Take the Garbage Out" is an example of a humorous work.
See pages 394, 455.
Hyperbole An author's use of exaggeration or overstatement for emphasis is called
hyperbole. A good example of hyperbole is Ernest Lawrence Thayer's
description of the crowd's response to Casey:
Then from the gladdened multitude went
up a joyous yell—
It rumbled in the mountaintops, it rattled
in the dell;
It struck upon the hillside and rebounded
on the flat;
For Casey, mighty Casey, was advancing
to the bat.
— Ernest Lawrence Thayer, from "Casey at the Bat"
Idiom An idiom is an expression that has a meaning different from the meaning of
its individual words. For example, "go to the dogs" is an idiom meaning "go to
ruin:'
Imagery Imagery consists of words and phrases that appeal to readers' senses.
Writers use sensory details to help readers imagine how things look, feel, smell,
sound, and taste. Note the imagery in these lines:
the fertile plants
tangled,
turned into
tendrils, cattails,
moving bulbs.
—Pablo Neruda, from -Ode to an Artichoke"
See pages 194, 743.
Inductive Reasoning In nonfiction the structure of a text may be organized using
inductive reasoning. Inductive reasoning is the process of determining
principles, or generalizations, by logic or observation, or reasoning from part to
whole.
See also Deductive Reasoning, Structure.
Inference An inference is a logical guess or conclusion based on evidence. For
example, when Mr. Johnson hands out peanuts to strangers in "One Ordinary
Day, with Peanuts," readers can infer that he wants to make new friends.
See pages 46, 347, 348.
Informative Nonfiction See Nonfiction.
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Internal Conflict See Conflict
Interview An interview is a conversation, such as that conducted by a writer or
reporter, in which facts or statements are drawn from another person, recorded,
and then broadcast or published.
Irony Irony is a contrast between what is expected and what actually exists or
happens. Exaggeration, sarcasm, and understatement are techniques writers
use to express irony. The excerpt below turns out to be highly ironic given the
kinds of expectations it raises about Russell Baker's early career in journalism
and what actually happens:
I began working in journalism when I was eight years old. It was my mother's idea.
She wanted me to "make something" of myself and, after a level-headed
appraisal of my strengths, decided I had better start young if I was to have any
chance of keeping up with the competition.
—Russell Baker, from Growing up
See also Exaggeration, Sarcasm, Understatement. See pages 358, 629.
Jargon Jargon is a specialized vocabulary used by members of a particular
profession.
Legend A legend is a story handed down from the past about a specific person—
usually someone of heroic accomplishments. Legends usually have some basis
in historical fact.
Limerick A limerick is a short, humorous poem composed of five lines. It usually
has the rhyme scheme aabba, created by two rhyming couplets followed by a
fifth line that rhymes with the first couplet. A limerick typically has a sing-song
rhythm.
Literary Nonfiction See Nonfiction.
Main Character See Character.
Main Idea A main idea is a writer's principal message. It may be the central idea of
an entire work or a thought expressed in the topic sentence of a paragraph.
(The term main idea is usually used in discussions of nonfiction.)
See pages 223, 732.
Memoir A memoir is a form of autobiographical writing in which a person recalls
important events in his or her life. Although basically personal, a memoir may
deal with events that have significance beyond the writer's individual life.
Nelson Mandela's memoir, Long Walk to Freedom, for example, describes his
growing awareness of the effects of racism in his native country, South Africa.
See page 737.
Metaphor A metaphor is a comparison of two things that have some quality in
common. Unlike a simile, a metaphor does not contain the word like or as;
instead, it says that one thing is another. The first lines of Alfred Noyes's "The
Highwayman" contain a series of metaphors:
The wind was a torrent of darkness among the gusty frees.
The moon was a ghostly galleon tossed upon cloudy seas.
The road was a ribbon of moonlight over the purple moor,
—Alfred Noyes, from "The Highwayman"
In an extended metaphor, two things are compared at some length and in several
ways. The poem "Ode to an Artichoke" is based on an extended metaphor in
which an artichoke is compared to a soldier.
See pages 194, 379, 564.
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Meter In poetry, meter is the pattern of accented and unaccented syllables. The
meter in a line of poetry creates its rhythm. Not all poems have regular meter.
"The Pasture" is an example of a poem with regular meter.
Minor Character See Character
Monitoring Good readers monitor their understanding of what they are reading by
stopping occasionally and adjusting their use of the active-reading strategies of
visualizing, predicting, clarifying, questioning, connecting, and evaluating.
Mood A mood, or atmosphere, is a feeling that a literary work conveys to readers.
Writers use a variety of techniques— including word choice, dialogue,
description, and plot complications—to establish moods. In The Monsters Are
Due on Maple Street, for example, Rod Serling creates a mood of tension and
anticipation.
[Les] stops suddenly as, behind him, the car engine starts up all by itself. Les whirls
around to stare at the car. The car idles roughly, smoke coming from the
exhaust, the frame shaking gently. Les's eyes go wide, and he runs over to the
car. The people stare at the car.
—Rod Serling, from The Monsters Are Due on Maple Street
See pages 519, 520, 530.
Moral A moral is a lesson that a story teaches. Morals are often stated directly at
the end of fables.
Motivation A character's motivation is the reason why he or she acts, feels, or
thinks in a certain way. For example, in "Zebra," a desire to help Adam get well
is part of John Wilson's motivation. Motivations may be stated directly, or they
may be implied.
She handed him a large brown envelope. It was addressed to Adam Zebrin, Eighth
Grade, at the school. The sender was John Wilson with a return address in
Virginia.
—Chaim Potok, from "Zebra"
Myth A myth is a traditional story, usually of unknown authorship, that deals with
basic questions about the universe. Gods and heroes often figure prominently
in myths, which may attempt to explain such things as the origin of the world,
mysteries of nature, or social customs. "How Odin Lost His Eye" is an example
of a myth.
See page 796.
Narrative A narrative is writing that tells a story. The events in a narrative may be
real, or they may be imaginary. Narratives that deal with real events include
biographies and autobiographies. Fictional narratives include myths, short
stories, novels, and narrative poems.
See pages 388.
Narrative Poetry Poetry that tells a story is called narrative poetry. Like fiction,
narrative poetry contains characters, settings, plots, and themes. It may also
contain such elements of poetry as rhyme, rhythm, imagery, and figurative
language. "The Highwayman" is an example of a narrative poem.
Narrator The narrator is the teller of a story.
See page 614.
See also Point of View.
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Nonfiction Writing that tells about real people, places, and events is called
nonfiction. Writers of nonfiction often get their information from both primary
sources (original, firsthand accounts) and secondary sources (descriptions based
on primary sources). Informative nonfiction is written mainly to provide factual
information. A work of literary nonfiction, on the other hand, reads like a work of
fiction—although it too provides factual information.
See pages 82, 230, 766.
See also Autobiography, Biography, Essay.
Novel A novel is a work of fiction that is longer and more complex than a short
story. A novel's setting, plot, characters, and theme are usually developed in
greater detail than a short story's.
Onomatopoeia Onomatopoeia is the use of words whose sound suggests their
meaning—like whir, buzz, pop, and sizzle. In "The Highwayman," the
onomatopoeic dot-tlor is used to imitate the clopping of a horse's hoofs on a
road.
See pages 193, 461.
Oral History Oral histories are stories of people's lives that have been passed
down by word of mouth. Oral histories include both factual information and
imaginative interpretation. In recent times, many oral histories have been
written down.
Oral Literature Oral literature includes different kinds of narratives of unknown
authorship that have been passed down by word of mouth from generation to
generation. Oral literature includes folk tales, legends, and myths. In recent
times, some oral narratives have been written down, but oral literature remains
an important aspect of many cultures throughout the world.
See African-American Folk Tale, Folk Tale, Myth.
Parallelism Parallelism is the use of similar grammatical constructions to express
ideas that are equal in importance. The parallel elements may be words,
phrases, sentences, or paragraphs. Note in the example below how the parallel
sentence structures help the reader to see that to Roald Dahl, feeling like a
hero was the same as being one.
I felt like a hero. I was a hero. It was marvelous to be so popular.
—Roald Dahl, from Boy Tales of Childhood
Paraphrasing Readers who paraphrase restate information in their own words.
Paraphrasing helps readers to clarify meaning.
Personification The giving of human qualities to an animal, object, or idea is
known as personification. In "Rikki-tikkitavi," for example, the mongoose and
the cobras are personified, conversing as if they were human.
Rikki-tikki licked his lips. "This is a splendid hunting ground," he said, and his tail
grew bottlebrushy at the thought of it; ...
—Rudyard Kipling, from "Rikki-tikki-tavi"
See pages 121,135.
Play See Drama.
Playwright See Drama.
Plot A story's plot is the sequence of related events that make up the story. In a
typical plot, an exposition introduces the characters and establishes the main
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conflict. Complications arise as the characters try to resolve the conflict.
Eventually, the plot builds toward a climax, the point of greatest interest or
suspense. In the final stage of the plot, called the resolution, or the
denouement, loose ends are tied up and the story is brought to a close.
Denouement (da'nCro-man') is from a French word that means "untying"—in
this stage, the tangles of the plot are often untied.
See pages 16, 171, 343, 561.
Poetry Poetry is a type of literature in which ideas and feelings are expressed in
compact, imaginative, and musical language. Poets arrange words in ways
intended to touch readers' senses, emotions, and minds. Most poems are
written in lines, which may contain regular patterns of rhyme and rhythm. These
lines may, in turn, be grouped in stanzas.
See page 191.
Point of View Every story is told from a particular point of view, or perspective.
When a story is told from the first-person point of view, the narrator is a
character in the story and uses first-person pronouns, such as /, me, we, and
us. In a story told from a third-person point of view, on the other hand, the
narrator is not a character; he or she uses third-person pronouns, such as he,
she, it, they, and them.
The third-person omniscient (all- knowing) point of view allows the narrator to relate
the thoughts and feelings of several, if not all, the story's characters. The
narrator of "Rikki-tikki-tavi" for example reveals the thoughts and feelings of
more than one character. If events are related from a third-person limited point
of view, as in "Seventh Grade," the narrator tells us what one character thinks,
feels, and observes.
See pages 83, 106, 135, 598.
Predicting Using what you know to draw a conclusion about what may happen is
called predicting. Good readers gather information as they read and combine
that information with prior knowledge to predict upcoming events in a story.
See pages 121, 361, 438, 521, 522.
Primary Sources See Nonfiction.
Prop The word prop, an abbreviation of property, refers to any physical object that
is used in a drama. In the play based on Charles Dickens's A Christmas Carol
the props include a turkey and a dove.
See also Drama, Scene, Scenery, Script, Stage.
Propaganda Text that uses false or misleading information to present a certain
point of view is called propaganda.
Prose Prose is the ordinary form of spoken and written language—that is, it is
language that lacks the special features of poetry.
Protagonist The central character in a story, play, or novel is called the
protagonist. The protagonist is involved in the main conflict of the plot and often
changes during the course of the work. The character who opposes the
protagonist is the antagonist. In "A Retrieved Reformation," Jimmy Valentine is
the protagonist and his pursuer, Ben Price, is the antagonist.
Ben Price knew Jimmy's habits. He had learned them while working up the
Springfield case. Long jumps, quick getaways, no confederates, and a taste for
good society—these ways had helped Mr. Valentine to become noted as a
successful dodger of retribution. It was given out that Ben Price had taken up
the trail of the elusive cracks- man, and other people with burglar-proof safes
felt more at ease.
—O. Henry, from "A Retrieved Reformation"
See also Antagonist.
Questioning The process of raising questions while reading is called questioning.
Good readers ask questions in an effort to understand characters and events,
looking
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for answers as they continue to read. See page 299.
Radio Play A radio play is a drama that is written specifically to be broadcast over
the radio. Because the audience is not meant to see a radio play, sound effects
are often used to help listeners imagine the setting and the action. The stage
directions in the play's script indicate the sound effects.
Realism Realism involves the vivid description of characters and the world in which
they live. A realistic description emphasizes a character's thoughts and feelings
by describing how the character looks and acts. In "The People Could Fly,"
Virginia Hamilton provides a particularly realistic description of the character of
Sarah.
The sun burned her face. The babe cried and cried, "Pity me, oh, pity me," say it
sounded like. Sarah was so sad and starvin', she sat down in the row.
—Virginia Hamilton, from "The People Could Fly"
Repetition Repetition is a use of any element of language—a sound, a word, a
phrase, a grammatical structure—more than once. Writers use repetition to
stress ideas and to create memorable sound effects, as in these lines:
He did not come in the dawning. He did not come at noon;
And out of the tawny sunset, before the rise of the moon, ...
—Alfred Noyes, from "The Highwayman"
See also Alliteration, Rhyme.
Resolution See Plot.
Rhyme Rhyme is a repetition of sounds at the end of words. Words rhyme when
their accented vowels and all the letters that follow have identical sounds. Dog
and log rhyme, as do letter and better.
The most common form of rhyme in poetry is end rhyme, where the rhyming words
occur at the end of lines. Rhyme that occurs within a line is called internal
rhyme.
See pages 193, 199, 303, 461.
Rhyme Scheme A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhymes in a poem. A rhyme
scheme can be described by using letters to represent the rhyming sounds at
the ends of lines. Lines that rhyme are given the same letter. For example, in
the following poem, the rhyme scheme is abab:
If I can stop one Heart from breaking a I shall not live in vain
If I can ease one Life the Aching a
Or cool one Pain
—Emily Dickinson, from "If I Can Stop One Heart from Breaking"
Rhythm The rhythm of a line of poetry is the pattern of stressed and unstressed
syllables in the line. When this pattern is repeated throughout a poem, the
poem is said to have a regular beat. Note the rhythm in these lines (the mark
indicates a stressed syllable; the mark is, an unstressed syllable):
The wind was astOrrent o daikne'ils among the gtisty`itr4s.
The moon was dghoklrallebri tossed tepoit clerudVseSs.
—Alfred Noyes, from "The Highwayman" See pages 193, 303, 458.
Rising Action See Plot
Sarcasm Sarcasm is a device writers use to express irony. Sarcasm may use
either understatement or exaggeration, but with the purpose of upsetting or
even offending someone. When Russell Baker's mother tells him that he has
"no more gumption than a bump on a log," she is using exaggeration to the
point of sarcasm.
See also Exaggeration, Irony, Understatement.
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Scanning Scanning is the process of searching through writing for a particular fact
or piece of information. When you scan, your eyes sweep across a page,
looking for key words that may lead you to the information you want.
Scene In a play, a scene is a section presenting events that occur in one place at
one time. Each scene presents an episode of the play's plot. For example, in A
Christmas Carol Scene i shows what occurs in Scrooge's shop, and Scene 2
shows what occurs at Scrooge's home.
Scenery The painted backdrop or other structures used to create the setting for a
play.
See also Drama, Stage.
Science Fiction Science fiction is fiction based on real or imagined scientific
developments. Science fiction stories are often set in imaginary places and in
the future. Ray Bradbury's "Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed" is an example
of science fiction.
See pages 411, 436.
Script The text of a play, motion picture, or broadcast is called a script.
See also Drama, Stage.
Secondary Sources See Nonfiction.
Sensory Details See Details.
Sequence The order in which events occur or ideas are presented is called a
sequence. In a narrative, events are usually presented in chronological order—
the order in which they happened. A writer may use clue words and phrases—
such as then, until after a while, and finally—to help readers understand the
sequence of events.
See also Chronological Order.
Setting The setting of a story, poem, or play is the time and place of the action.
Elements of setting may include geographic location, historical period (past,
present, or future), the season of the year, the time of day, and the beliefs,
customs, and standards of a society. The influence of setting on characters'
decisions and actions may vary from work to work.
See pages 18, 26, 43, 655, 672, 690.
Setting a Purpose The process of establishing specific reasons to read a literary
work is called setting a purpose. Readers often come to a piece of writing with a
purpose in mind, such as reading for entertainment, for information, or to
analyze or evaluate a piece of writing. Readers can look at a work's title,
headings and subheadings, and illustrations to preview the work and then set a
purpose for their reading.
Short Story A short story is a brief work of fiction that can usually be read in a
single sitting. A short story generally focuses on one or two main characters
and on a single conflict.
Simile A simile is a comparison of two things that have some quality in common. In
a simile, the comparison is conveyed by means of the word like or as. Note the
simile in this sentence:
What is left looks rather like a gigantic, black pancake.
—Roald Dahl, from Boy: Tales of Childhood
See page 194, 564.
Skimming Skimming is the process of reading quickly to identify the main idea of,
or to get an overview of, a work or passage. It involves reading the title, the
headings, the words in special type, and the first sentence of each paragraph,
as well as any charts, graphs, and time lines that accompany the writing.
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Sound Effects. See Alliteration, Onomatopoeia, Repetition, Rhyme, Rhythm.
Speaker In a poem, the speaker is the voice that talks to the reader—like the
narrator in a work of fiction. Frequently, recognizing the speaker's attitude is a
key to understanding a poem's meaning. In some poems, such as "The Bat," by
Theodore Roethke, the speaker expresses the feelings of the poet. In others,
the speaker's attitude and the poet's may not be the same.
See page 192, 204.
Speech A speech is a prepared talk given in public. Sometimes, speeches are later
published. Virginia Hamilton's "Looking For America" is an excerpt from a
speech.
Stage The level and raised platform on which entertainers usually perform.
See also Drama.
Stage Directions In the script of a play, the instructions to the actors, director, and
stage crew are called stage directions. They may suggest scenery, lighting,
music, sound effects, and ways for actors to move and speak. In the plays in
this book, stage directions appear in italic type and are enclosed in
parentheses.
(The percussion thunders. Scrooge hurls himself through the descending
snowflakes and sends the children scattering.)
—Frederick Gaines, fromA Christmas Carol See pages 246, 275.
Stanza A group of lines within a poem is called a stanza. A stanza is like a
paragraph in a work of prose. "The Rider," by Naomi
Shihab Nye, for example, contains three stanzas.
See pages 192.
Static Character See Character.
Stereotype A stereotype is a generalization about a group of people, in which
individual differences are disregarded. Stereotypes may lead to unfair judgments of
individuals on the basis of race, ethnic background, or physical appearance.
Story Map A story map is a visual organizer that helps a reader understand a work
of literature. A story map helps a reader to keep track of setting, characters,
events, and conflicts.
Structure The structure of a work of literature is the way in which it is put together.
In poetry, structure involves the arrangement of words and lines to produce a
desired effect. One structural unit in poetry is the stanza. In prose, structure
involves the arrangement of such elements as sentences, paragraphs, and
events. "Dark They Were, and Golden-Eyed," for example, has the overall
structure of a third-person fictional narrative. It has a circular structure in which
the end mirrors the beginning.
See page 491.
Style A style is a manner of writing; it involves how something is said rather than
what is said. The excerpt from Boy: Tales of Childhood, for example, has a
playful style that relies on exaggeration, humor, and colorful words. Many
elements contribute to style, including word choice, sentence length, tone, and
figurative language.
I lifted the heavy glass lid of the gobstopper jar and dropped the mouse in. Then I
replaced the lid as silently as possible. My heart was thumping like mad, and
my hands had gone all sweaty.
—Roald Dahl, from Boy: Tales of Childhood
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Summarizing Summarizing is telling the main ideas of a piece of writing briefly in
one's own words, omitting unimportant details.
See pages 287, 767.
Surprise Ending An unexpected plot twist at the end of a story is called a surprise
ending. "A Retrieved Reformation" is an example of a story with a surprise
ending.
See page 372.
Suspense Suspense is a feeling of growing tension and excitement felt by a
reader. Writers create suspense by raising questions in readers' minds about
what might happen. For example, in "A Retrieved Reformation," a suspenseful
moment occurs when Agatha is trapped inside the bank vault and readers
wonder whether she will suffocate.
See pages 372.
Symbol A symbol is a person, a place, an object, or an action that stands for
something beyond itself. In "The White Umbrella," for example, the umbrella
mentioned in the story title symbolizes the ambivalence the main character
feels toward her mother's having to take a job to help support the family. This
ambivalence is resolved at the end of the story when the character throws the
umbrella away.
See page 394.
Table of Contents In most nonfiction books or in books arranged by chapter or
section, the contents of the book are shown in a table of contents. The table of
contents usually appears at the beginning of the book and lists chapter and
section titles and the page where each begins. Besides helping you to find
specific parts of the book, the table of contents can give you an overview of the
material covered by the book.
Tall Tale A tall tale is a humorously exaggerated story about impossible events,
often relating the supernatural abilities of the main character. The tales about
folk heroes such as Paul Bunyan, Pecos Bill, and Davy Crockett are tall tales.
Teleplay A play written for television is called a teleplay. In a teleplay, the stage
directions usually include camera instructions. The Monsters Are Due on Maple
Street is an example of a teleplay.
See page 429.
Text Organizers Text organizers include headings, tables of contents, and graphic
elements such as charts, tables, time lines, boxes, bullets, and captions.
Theme A theme is the message about life or human nature that is conveyed by a
literary work. A work may have more than one theme, and in many cases
readers must infer the writer's message. One way to infer a fictional work's
theme is to decide what general statement could be supported by the
experiences of the main character. For example, a theme of "The Scholarship
Jacket" is having to stand up for one's beliefs.
See pages 18, 284, 413, 429, 498.
Title The title of a piece of writing is the name that is attached to it. A title often
refers to an important aspect of the work to which it is attached. For example,
the title "The War of the Wall" refers to Lou and the narrator's conflict with the
"painter lady."
See page 467.
Tone The tone of a work is the writer's attitude toward his or her subject. Words
such as amused, objective, and angry can be used to describe different tones.
The
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tone of "Winter Poem," for example, might be described as dreamy or escapist.
once a snowflake tell
on my brow and i loved
it so much and i kissed
it and it was happy and called its cousins
—Nikki Giovanni, from "Winter Poem"
See pages 519, 520, 530.
Tragedy A tragedy is a dramatic work that presents the downfall of a dignified
character or characters who are involved in historically or socially significant
events. The events in a tragic plot are set in motion by a decision that is often
an error in judgment. Succeeding events are linked in a cause-and-effect
relationship and lead to a disastrous conclusion, often death.
Trickster Tale Trickster tales are folktales that reflect an admiration for cleverness.
The tricksters themselves are not depicted as heroic but as what they really
are—con artists. "Brother Coyote and Brother Cricket" is an example of a
trickster tale from Texas.
Turning Point See Plot
Understatement Writers use understatement as a means of expressing irony.
Understatement de-emphasizes the significance of something. Russell Baker
uses understatement when he comments that, as a child, as far as he could tell,
what writers did "couldn't be classified as work:'
See also Exaggeration, Irony, Sarcasm.
Unreliable Narrator A narrator who does not narrate events objectively is called an
unreliable narrator. An unreliable narrator is usually a character in the work
whose biases or lack of self-awareness distorts his or her presentation of
events. Juliette in "Waiting" is an example of an unreliable narrator. Note in the
quotation below the bias with which she imagines how others will comment
about her.
People were murmuring, "So young, so small, and so attractive."
—Budge Wilson, from "Waiting"
Visualizing The process of forming a mental picture based on a written description
is called visualizing. Good readers use the details supplied by writers to picture
characters, settings, and events in their minds.
See pages 249, 250, 478, 553.
Voice A writer's or narrator's voice is his or her unique style of expression. Voice
can reveal much about the author or narrator's personality, beliefs, and
attitudes. The voice in "The Elephant" expresses the pain of imprisonment and
longing for freedom.
I will remember what I was. I am sick
of rope and chain—
I will remember my old strength and
all my forest-affairs.
—Rudyard Kipling, from "The Elephant"
See also Author's Perspective, Tone.
Word Choice Word choice is an important part of the writing process. Writers
carefully select words to give precise descriptions, create a particular mood,
and increase the impact of their writing. Notice how the words Gish Jen
chooses help to create a mood in "The White Umbrella":
The umbrella glowed like a scepter on
the blue carpet while Mona, slumping over the keyboard, managed to eke out a fair
rendition of a cat fight.
—Gish Jen, from -The White Umbrella"
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Glossary of Words to Know
In English and Spanish
A
abode (ə-bōd') n. a home
domicilio n. hogar
abundance (ə-bŭn'dəns) n. wealth
abundancia n. gran cantidad
accede (ăk-sēd') V. to consent due to outside influences
acceder v. consentir en lo que otro solicita o quiere
acclaimed (ə-klāmd') adj. welcomed publicly with praise acclaim v.
aclamado(a) adj. que recibe felicitaciones
accommodations (ə-kŏm'ə-dā'shənz) n. a room and food, especially in hotels or
on ships or trains
acomodaciones n. las facilidades disponibles para un viajero en hoteles, barcos o
trenes
acknowledge (ăk-nŏl'ĭj) v. to recognize the status or rights of
aceptar v. reconocer el estatus o los derechos de
aggrievedly (e-gre'vid-le) adv. in a manner suggesting that one has been badly
treated
gravemente herido(a) adv. de una manera que sugiere que alguien ha sido
seriamente lastimado
agile (aj'el) adj. quick and light in movement
agil adj. que puede moverse con facilidad
agitate (aj'i-tat') v. to stir up public interest in a cause
agitar v. mover con frecuencia y violentamente
alight (ə-līt') v. to land lightly, as after flight posarse v. despositarse
alleged (a-lĕjd') adj. supposed
presunto adj. supuesto
ambiguous (ăm-bĭg'yoo-əs) adj. can be understood in more than one way
ambiguo(a) adj. incierto; confuso
amiss (ə-mĭs') adj. out of proper order; wrong
mal adj. extrafto
ammunition (ăm'yə-nĭsh'ən) n. the explosive cartridges or shells designed to be
used in guns
municiones n. cargas de las armas
anguish (ăng'gwĭsh) n. great physical or mental suffering, as from grief or pain
angustia n. aflicción
angular (ăng'gyə-lər) adj. bony and lean
anguloso(a) adj. que tiene o forma angulos
anonymous (ə-nŏn'ə-məs) adj. not having one's name known
aminimo(a) adj. de nombre desconocido
antagonism (ăn-tăg'ə-nĭz'əm) n. hostility; unfriendliness
antagonismo n. oposición
antidote (ăn'tĭ-dōt) n. something that prevents the evil effects of something else;
remedy
remedio n. cualquier sustancia que sirve para prevenir o combatir una enfermedad
apathy (ăp'ə-thē) n. lack of strong feeling or interest
apatia n. falta de interés
aptitude (ăp'tĭ-tood') n. natural ability
aptitud n. habilidad natural
arresting (ə-rĕs'tĭng) adj. striking
chocante adj. que sorprende; causa extrafieza
assault (ə-sôlt') v. to attack
atacar V. acometer
assiduously (ə-sĭj'oo-əs-lē) adv. in a steady and hard-working way
con dedicación adv. de una manera destinada
audible (ô-də-bəl) adj. able to be heard
audible adj. que puede oirse
B
balk (bôk) v. to refuse to move or act
resistirse v. no consentir
barrage (bə-räzh') n. a rapid, heavy attack
descarga n. una sucesión rapida de golpes o balas
barren (băr'en) adj. empty; deserted
esteril adj. vacio
bartering (bär'tər-ĭng) n. arguing over a price; bargaining barter v.
trocar v. cambiar una cosa por otra; regatear
beckon (bĕk'ən) v. to summon or call, usually by a gesture or nod
Ilamar v. atraer con un gesto
bedlam (bĕdləm) n. a noisy confusion pandemonio n. locura colectiva
bellow (bĕl'ō) v. to shout in a deep voice; roar
bramar v. gritar con voz gruesa; rugir
benefactor (bĕn'e-făk'tər) n. a person who provides money or help benefactor n.
bienhechor; una persona que provee dinero o ayuda
bleak (blēk) adj. harsh and dreary
sombrio adj. melancólico; triste
bluff (blŭf) v. to mislead or deceive; to fake
engatiar v. hater creer algo que es falso
brooding (broo'dĭng) adj. full of worry; troubled brood v.
dar vueltas v. pensar mucho sobre un punto
C
chaos (kā'ŏs') n. extreme confusion or disorder
caos n. confusion; desorden
chaotic (kā-ŏ't ĭk) adj. confused; disordered
caotico adj. confuso; desordenado
charitable (chăr'ĭ-tə-bəll) adj. generous in giving
caritativo(a) adj. benèfico
circuit (sûr'kĭt) IL the path of an electric current; connected electronic elements
circuito n. conjunto de conductores electricos
clench (klénch) v. to hold or grip tightly
apretar v. sujetar firmemente
coincidence (kō-ĭn'sĭ-dəns) n. accidental sequence of events that seems planned
coincidencia n. dos acciones independientes que suceden al mismo tiempo,
resultando en una conexiOn inesperada
combatant (kəm-băt'nt) n. fighter
luchador n. una persona que lucha o pelea
compassionate (kəm-păsh'ə-nĭt) adj. having sympathy for the sufferings of others
compasivo(a) adj. que siente compasiOn
complex (kəm-plĕks') adj. consisting of interconnected parts; intricate
complejo(a) adj. formado por elementos diferentes
compliance (kəm-plī' əns) n. the act of obeying a request or a command
acatamiento n.
obediencia; conformidad
composure (kəm-pō'zhər) n. an undisturbed state of mind; calmness
compostura n. manera de comportarse
compulsory (kəm-pŭl'sa-rē) adj. that which must be done; required
compulsorio adj. obligatorio
confirm (kən-fûrm') v. to make certain
confirmar v. corroborar la verdad o certeza de una cosa
confound (kən-found') V. to bewilder; confuse
confundir v. mezclar cosas o personas; agobiar
consolation (kŏn'sə-lā'shən) n. something that comforts
consuelo n. algo que conforta
contemplate (kŏn'təm-plāt) v. to look at attentively and thoughtfully
contemplar V. mirar con atenci6n
contempt (kən-tĕmpt') n. disdain
desprecio n. desdén
contend (kən-tĕnd') v. to argue
porfiar v. disputar
contorted (kən-tôr'tĭd) adj. twisted or pulled out of shape
contort v. torcer v. desfigurarse; retorter
contradict (kŏn' trə-dĭkt') v. to express the opposite of; to be contrary to
contradecir v. decir lo contrario de lo que otro afirma
convalescing (kŏn'və-lĕs'ĭng) adj. recovering gradually from an illness convalesce
v.
convalecer v. recobrar las fuerzas perdidas por una enfermedad
conviction (kən-vĕn'shə-nəl) a a strong belief; assuredness
conviction n. convencimiento; ideas; creencias
convoluted (kŏn'və-loo'tĭd) adj. difficult to understand; complicated
enrollado(a) adj. dificil de entender; complicado
cower (kou'ər) v. to crouch or shrink down in fear
meterse en un lugar v. esconderse
credibility (krĕd'ə-bĭl'ĭ-tē) n. believability
credibilidad n. calidad de creer
crude (krood) adj. lacking tact or good manners
tosco(a) adj. sin modales; grosero
crux (krŭks) n. the most important point or element
punto critico n. elemento más importante
cunningly (kŭn'ĭng-1ē) adv. in a clever way that is meant to trick or deceive
hibilmente adv. de una manera ingeniosa
currency (kûr'ən-sē) n. money
moneda n. dinero
curtailed (kər-tāld') adj. cut short curtail v.
reducido adj. cortado
curtsey (kûrt'sē) v. to bend the knees and lower the body as a gesture of respect
hacer una reverencia v. hacer un gesto para demostrar respeto
cynical (sĭn'ĭlkəl) adj. mistrustful of others' sincerity
cinico(a) adj. desvergonzado; impüdico
D
dappled (dăp'əld) adj. spotted
manchado adj. moteado
dazzled (dăz'əld) adj. amazed or overwhelmed by a spectacular display dazzle v.
deslumbrado(a) adj. estado de sentirse sobrecogido o maravillado por una vista
espectacular
defiant (dĭ-fī'ənt) adj. willing to stand up to opposition; bold
desafiante adj. provocador
design (dĭ-zīn') n. a plan
diserio n. plan
despair (dĭ-spâr) v. to lose hope
desesperar v. perder la esperanza
destitute (dĕs'tĭ-toot') n. people lacking the necessities of life
indigente n. una persona que le falta lo necesario para vivir
devastating (dĕv'ə-stātĭng) adj. extremely destructive devastate v.
devastador(a) adj. asolador
diffidently (dĭf'ĭ-dənt-lē ) adv. reserved or restrained in manner
timidamente adv. de una manera que demuestra una falta de confianza
din (dĭn) n. a loud, confused mixture of noises
estrépito n. clamoreo; una mezcla de ruidos
disciplinarian (dĭs'ə-plə-nâr'ē-ən) n. someone who enforces strict discipline
ordenancista n. alguien que tree en las reglas de orden y disciplina
discreet (dĭ-skrēt') adj. careful about what one says or does
discreto(a) adj. dotado de discreción
dismally (dĭz'məl-1ē) adv in a gloomy or depressed manner
triste adj. deprimente; terrible
dismay (dĭs-mā') n. loss of courage in the face of trouble
desencanto n. tristeza honda que resulta cuando no se obtiene lo esperado
dismount (dĭs-mount') IL to get down from a horse
desmontarse v. bajarse de un caballo
dispel (dĭ-spĕl') v. to scatter; get rid of
disipar v. hacer que algo desaparezca de un lugar
diverted (dĭ-vûr'tĭd) adj. turned away divert v.
desviar v. distraer
dominant (dŏm'ə-nənt) adj. ruling or controlling
dominante adj. que quiere imponer su voluntad
drawl (drôl) v. to speak slowly, stretching the vowel sound
arrastrar las palabras v. hablar lentamente
dwindle (dwĭn'd1) it to become less, until little remains
disminuir v. hacer menor
E
eerie (îr'ē) adj. weird, especially in a frightening way
escalofriante adj. que sorprende de una forma atemorizante
elaborate (ĭ-lăb'ə-rāt') v. to state at greater length or in greater detail
elaborar v. expresar con más detalles
elective (ĭ-lĕk'tĭv) n. an optional academic course or subject
electivo n. opcional; un curso o materia opcional
eloquence (ĕl'ə-kwəns) n. forceful, convincing speech
elocuencia a facultad de hablar bien
elusive (ĭ-loo' sĭv) adj. escaping from capture as by daring, cleverness, or skill
evasivo adj. recurso para no comprometerse con una respuesta
embroidered (ĕm-broi'dərd) adj. ornamented with stitched designs embroider v.
bordado adj. adornado con aguja e hilo
emerge (ĭ-mûrj') v. to come into sight
emerger v. surgir; aparecer
eminent (ĕm'ə-nənt) adj. better than most others; very famous
eminente adj. muy famoso
enchanted (ĕn-chănt'ĭd) adj. under a spell; bewitched enchant v.
encantado(a) adj. fascinado(a); hechizado(a) encantar v.
encrusted (ĕn-krŭst'əd) adj. covered as if with crusts encrust v.
incrustar v. cubierto con una capa de algo
endeavor (ĕn-dĕv'ər) v. to try
intentar v. esforzar; tratar
endow (ĕn-dou) v. to provide with a quality or a talent
dotar v. proveer con una calidad o un talento
enfeebled (ĕn-fē'bəld) adj. deprived of strength; made weak enfeeble v.
debilitar v. guitar, perder fuerza
enhance (ĕn-hăns) v. to increase the attractiveness of
acrecentar v. aumentar la belleza de
essence (ĕs'əns) n. basic nature or spirit
esencia n. ser y naturaleza propia de las cosas
ethnicity (ĕth-nĭs'ĭ-tē) n. a racial, national, or cultural heritage
etnia a agrupaciOn natural de individuos de la misma cultura
evading (ĭ-vā'dĭng) adj. avoiding; escaping evade v.
evitar v. protegerse de algo negativo
exotic (ĭg-zŏt ĭk) adj. unusual or different
exótico adj. procedente de lo diferente
explicit (ĭk-splĭs'ĭt) adj. plain; straightforward
explicito(a) adj. claro(a); inequivoco(a)
exuberantly (ĭg-zoo'bər-ənt-1ē) adv. full of enthusiasm or joy
exuberante adj. gran abundacia de felicidad
F
falsify (fôl'sə-fī) v. to make false by adding to or changing
falsificar v. tratar de que un documento falso sea aceptado como veridico
feint (fānt) v to make a pretended attack in order to draw attention away from one's
real purpose or target
fingir v. disimular
ferocity (fə-rŏs'ĭ-tē) n. extreme fierceness; intensity
ferocidad n. fiereza; violencia
fervent (fûr'vənt) adj. having or expressing great warmth or depth of feeling
ferviente adj. ardiente
feverishly (fē'vər-ĭsh-lē) adv. in a highly emotional or nervous way
de una manera febril adv. de una manera muy emotional o nerviosa
fidget (fĭj'ĭt) v. to behave nervously or restlessly
jugar nerviosamente v. contener los nervios a través de una actividad inconsciente
finale (fə-năl'ē) n. the concluding part
final n. el Ultimo ado
flamboyant (flăm-boi'ənt) adj. given to showy display; flashy
rimborante adj. replandeciente; ornamentado
flimsy (flĭm'zē) adj. not solid or strong
ligero adj. insubstantial; débil
flourishing (flûr'ĭ-shĭng) adj. getting along well and successfully; thriving flourish v.
floreciente adj. que prospera
flustered (flŭs'tərd) adj. nervous or confused fluster v.
ponerse nervioso v. actuar de una manera confundida o ansiosa
forage (fôr'ĭj) v. to search for what one wants or needs, especially for food
hurgar v. buscar lo que se necesita, especialmente alimento
forge (fôrj) v. to shape metal by heating it and pounding on it with a hammer
forjar v. fraguar; dar la primera forma con el martillo o prensa a cualquier metal
forlorn (fôr-lôrn') adj. a sense of aloneness and sadness
acongojado(a) adj. melancOlico
frail (frāl) adj. delicate; weak and fragile fragil adj.
delicado; débil
frugally (froo'gə-lē) adv. in a thrifty way; economically
de una manera frugal adv. de una manera economica
G
game (gām) adj. ready and willing to proceed
seguir en la pelea v. estar en juego, no darse por vencido
gaudy (gô'dē) adj. excessively bright and showy
Ilamativo(a) adj. chillOn
gaunt (gônt) adj. thin and bony
enjuto(a) adj. delgado
genial (jēn'yəl) adj. pleasant; friendly
simpatico adj. afable; amistoso
glinty (glĭn' tē) adj. sparkling
destello n. fulgor
grievous (grē'vəs) adj. painful; serious
penoso(a) adj. doloroso(a); serio(a)
gumption (gŭmp'shən) n. an ability to think and act without being urged; initiative
cactimen n. iniciativa; la calidad de pensar y actuar por si mismo
H
habitual (hə-bĭch'oo-əl) adj. established by long use
habitual adj. establecido por use largo
haggle (hăg'əl) v. to argue about terms or price; bargain
regatear v. discutir el precio
hardy (här'dē) adj. in robust good health
robusto(a) adj. resistente; de buena salud
harried (hăr'ēd) adj. worried; distressed harry v.
preocupado adj. que teme algo
haughty (hô'tē) adj. condescendingly proud
altivo(a) adj. de demasiado orgullo
humility (hyoo-mĭl'ĭ-tē) n. lack of pride
humildad n. falta de orgullo
I
idiosyncrasy (ĭd'ē-ō-sĭng'krə-sē) n. a personal way of acting; odd mannerism
idiosincrasia a indole de temperamento y carkter de cada persona
illuminate (ĭ-loo'mə-nāt') v. to light up
iluminar v. alumbrar
illustrious (ĭ-lŭs' trē-əs) adj. well-known or distinguished
ilustre adj. de distinguida prosapia, casa, origen
immortal (ĭ-môr'tl) adj. undying; not subject to death
inmortal adj. sin morir; que no tiene la capacidad de morirse
impertinent (ĭm-pûr'tn-ənt) adj. not having good manners; rude
impertinente adj. que no viene al caso
impetus (ĭm'pĭ-təs) n. a force that produces motion or action; impulse
impetu n. movimiento acelerado y violento
implore (ĭm-plôr') v. to beg
implorar v. suplicar
impoverished (ĭm-pŏv' ər-ĭsht) adj. poor
empobrecer v hacer que uno quede pobre
improvise (ĭm'prə-vīz') v. to speak or perform without preparation
improvisar v. inventar en el momento
incalculable (ĭn-kăl'kyə-lə-bəl) adj. too great to be measured or counted
incalculable adj. que no puede calcularse
incapacitated (ĭn'kə-păs'ĭ-tā'tĭd) adj. deprived of the ability to engage in normal
activities; disabled incapacitate V.
incapacitado(a) adj. que no tiene la habilidad de hater ciertas cosas
incoherent (ĭn'kō-hîr'ənt) adj. without connection or harmony
incoherente adj. no coherente
incomprehensible (ĭn'kŏm-prĭ-hĕn'sə-bəl) adj. not understandable
incompresible adj. que no se comprende
incorporate (ĭn-kôr'pə-rātr) v. to make part of another thing; merge
incorporar V. unir una o más cosas para que hagan un todo
incredulous (ĭn-krĕj'ə-ləs) adj. unable or unwilling to believe something
incrédulo(a) adj. que no tree
incriminate (ĭn-krĭm'ə-nāt) v. to cause tc appear guilty
incriminar V. acriminar
indefinitely (ĭn-dĕf'ə-nĭt-lē) adv. for an unlimited length of time
indefinidamente adv. que no Ilega al fin
indignant (ĭn-dĭg'nənt) adj. filled with indignation
indignado(a) adj. Ileno(a) de indignación
indignation (ĭn'dĭg-nā'shən) n. anger that is a reaction to injustice or meanness
indignación n. enojo que resulta de una injusticia o avaricia
indivisible (ĭn'də-vĭz' ə-bəll) adj. incapable of being divided
indivisible adj. que no puede ser dividido
indomitable (ĭn-dŏm'ĭ-tə-bəl) adj. unconquerable
indomable adj. que no se puede domar
inevitably (ĭn-ĕv' ĭ-tə-blē) adv. in a way that is impossible to avoid or prevent
inevitable adj. que no se puede evitar
infuriatingly (ĭn-fyoor'ē-ā'tĭng-lē) adv. in a way that makes one very angry
enfurecido(a) adj. enojado
ingratiate (ĭn-grā shē-āt) v. to try to bring oneself into another's favor
congraciarse v. ganar el favor o respeto de otro
initial (ĭ-nĭsh'əl) adj. first
initial adj. primero
insatiable (ĭn-sā'shə-bəl) adj. impossible to satisfy
insatiable adj. imposible de satisfacer
inscription (ĭn-skrĭp'shən) n. something written, carved, or engraved on a surface
inscripción n. action de inscribir
insinuation (ĭn-sĭn'yoo-ā'shən) n. a suggestion or hint intended to insult
insinuation a manera sutil de insultar
integrated (ĭn'tĭ-grā'tĭd) adj. open to people of all races or ethnic groups without
restriction; desegregated integrate V.
integrado(a) adj. abierto(a) a personas de todas razas o grupos étnicos sin
restricciones; no segregado(a)
intense (ĭn-tĕns') adj. showing great concentration or determination
intenso(a) adj. algo que muestra gran concentration o determinación
intently (ĭn-tĕnt'lē) adv. with fixed attention
atentamente adv. con atención fija
interval (ĭn'tər-vəl) n. the amount of time between two events
intervalo n. la cantidad de tiempo entre dos sucesos
intricate (ĭn'trĭ-kĭt) adj. arranged in a complex way
intrincado adj. presentado de una manera compleja
invalid (ĭn'və-lĭd) a a sickly or disabled person
invalido n. persona enferma o sin habilidad
ironically (i-rŏn'ĭk-1ē) adv. in a way that is contrary to what is expected or intended
iránicamente adv. de una manera contraria a lo esperado o lo intentado
J
jauntily (jôn'tĭ-lē) adv. in a light and carefree way
gallardamente adv. de una manera ligera y despreocupada
jeer (jîr) v. to mock; to taunt
burlarse v. tratar con desprecio; ridiculizar
jostling (jŏs' lĭng) n. a rough bumping, pushing, or shoving jostle v.
entrada a empellones n. chocar o empujar con fuerza entrar a empellones v.
L
legacy (lĕg'ə-sē) n. something handed down from an ancestor or from the past
herencia n. algo heredado de un antepasado o del pasado
legitimate (lə-jĭt'ə-mĭt) adj. in accordance with accepted practices; reasonable
legitimo(a) adj. segtin las prácticas aceptadas
liberation (lĭb'ə-rā'shən) n. a state of freedom reached after a struggle
liberación n. estado de libertad alcanzado después de una lucha
linger (lĭng'gər) v. to continue to stay; delay leaving
vacilar v. quedarse; tardar en partir
list (lĭst) v. to tilt; lean escorar v.
voltear, inclinar
loathsome (lōth'səm) adj. disgusting
repugnante adj. asqueroso(a)
M
macabre (mə-kä'brə) adj. suggesting the horror of death and decay
macabro(a) adj. que sugiere el horror de la muerte y la descomposiciOn
malignant (mə-lĭg'nənt) adj. filled with evil; threatening
maligno(a) adj. malvado(a)
maneuver (mə-noo'vər) v. to guide or direct through a series of movements
maniobrar v. guiar o dirigir a travês de una serie de movimientos
maxim (măk'sĭm) n. a short saying that expresses an accepted truth or rule;
proverb
maxima n. una frase corta que expresa una verdad o regla aceptada; refran
melancholy (mĕl'ən-kŏl'ē) n. sadness; depression
melancolia n. tristeza; depresion
menacing (m'ĕn'ĭs-ĭng) adj. threatening menace v.
amenazante adj. que indica peligro
merge (mûrj) v. to blend together
combinarse v. unirse
migrant (mīgrənt) adj. moving from place to place
migratorio(a) adj. mudarse de un sitio a otro
misfortune (mĭs-fôr'chən) n. a piece of bad luck
desventura n. mala suerte
mistrust (mĭs-trŭst') v. to have no confidence in
desconfiar v. no tener confianza
mobilize (mō'bə-līz) v. to assemble for a purpose
movilizar v. reunir para un prop6sito
mortal (môr'tl) adj. of the Earth; not a spirit
mortal adj. de la Tierra; no un espiritu
multitude (mŭl'tĭ-tood') n. a very great number
multitud n. un gran nürnero
muster (mŭs'tər) v. to call forth; to summon up
poder valerse de uno mismo v, contar con un talento propio sin terror
N
neurotic (noo-rŏt'ik) adj. having excessive anxiety and emotional upset
neurótico(a) adj. tener ansiedad excesiva y malestar emotional
nimbly (nim'blē) adv. quickly and lightly
agilmente adv. rápidamente y ligeramente
novelty (nŏv'əl-tē) n. something new, original, or unusual
novedad n. algo nuevo, original o inusual
nuisance (noo'səns) n. someone or something that is annoying and bothersome
molestia n. alguien o algo irritante y fastidioso
O
odious (ō'dē-əs) adj. causing or deserving strong dislike
odioso(a) adj. causa o merece una fuerte antipatfa
optimistic (ŏp'tŏə-mĭs'tĭk) adj. hopeful about the future; confident
optimista adj. Ileno(a) de esperanza acerca del futuro; confiado(a)
orderly (ôr'dər-1ē) n. an attendant who performs nonmedical tasks in a hospital or
similar institution
enfermero n. una persona que cuida de un enfermo; camillero
P
pandemonium (păn'də-mō'nē-am) n. a noisy upset; a wild uproar
pandemonio n. malestar ruidoso; tumulto turbulento
parchment (pärch'mənt) n. a paperlike writing material made from the skins of
sheep or goats
pergamino n. papel muy lino
passive (păs'ĭv) adj. inactive; lacking in energy or willpower
pasivo(a) adj. inactivo(a); sin energia ni fuerza
peer (pîr) v. to look intently
escudrinar v. mirar intensivamente
pensively (pĕn'sĭv-lē) adv. in a way that suggests deep thought
pensativamente adv. pensando con tranquilidad
perilously (pĕr'ə-ləs-1ē) adv. dangerously
arriesgadamente adv. peligrosamente
perpetual (pər-pĕch'oo-əl) adj. continual; unending
perpetuo(a) adj. eterno(a), sin fin
persistent (pər-sĭs'tənt) adj. refusing to give up; continuing stubbornly
persistente adj. que rechaza el acto de abandonar; que sigue obstinadamente
petition (pə-tĭsh'ən) n. a formal request
solicitud n. pedido formal
petty (pĕt' ē) adj. of little importance, trivial
insignificante adj. sin importancia, trivial
pine (pīn) v. to waste away from longing or grief
languidecer v. desfallecer de deseo o pena
plague (plāg) v. to annoy
plagar v. fastidiar
pledge (plĕj) n. something given to guarantee fulfillment of a promise
compromiso n. algo que se hate para garantizar una promesa
poised (poizd) adj. balanced or held in suspension
equilibrado(a) adj. balanceado(a) o suspendido(a)
portly (pôrt'lē) adj. stout or overweight
corpulento(a) adj. grueso o con demasiado peso
predestined (prē-dĕs'tĭnd) adj. having one's fate decided beforehand predestine v.
predestinado(a) adj. que tiene el destino determinado de antemano predestinar v.
presentable (prĭ-zĕn'tə-bəl) adj. fit to be seen by people
presentable adj. listo(a) para ser visto(a) por la gente
priceless (prīs'lĭs) adj. too valuable to be measured by price
inapreciable adj. que tiene demasiado valor para fijarse un precio
priority (prī-ôr'ĭ-tē) n. something that must receive attention first
prioridad n. algo que debe ser atendido primero
prominent (prŏm'ə-nənt) adj. well- known; widely recognized
prominente adj. bien conocido(a); reconocido(a) en muchas partes
prophecy (prŏf'ĭ-sē) n. a prediction; foretelling of future events
profecia n. una predicción inspirada de eventos futuros
provision (prə-vĭzh'ən) n. a supplying of needs
provision n. la oferta de unas necesidades
provocation (prŏv'ə-kā'shən) n. something that produces an emotional or physical
reaction
provocación n. algo que produce una reaction fisica o emotional
Q
quarantine (kwôr'ən-tēn') n. a place where a diseased animal is kept away from
others
cuarentena n. lugar donde se aparta un animal enfermo
quench (kwĕnch) v to put out; to extinguish
aplacar v. apagar; extinguir
quiver (kwĭv'ər) v. to shake with a slight, rapid movement
temblar v. vibrar con un movimiento rapido y sutil
R
ravenous (răv'ə-nəs) adj. extremely hungry; greedy
voraz adj. que tiene mucha hambre; glotón
reassurance (rē'ə-shoor'əns) n. a restoring of confidence
afirmacion repetida n. una restauración de confianza
rebellion (rĭ-bĕ'yən) n. organized resistance to government or authority
rebelión n. resistencia organizada al gobierno o las autoridades
recede (rĭ-sēd') v. to become fainter and more distant
retirarse v. Ilegar a ser débil y más lejano
reclaiming (rĭ-klā'mĭng) adj. getting back; recovering reclaim v.
recuperado(a) adj. obtenido(a) de nuevo; recobrado(a) recuperar v.
redundant (rĭ-dŭn'dənt) adj. more than what is necessary
redundante adj. más de lo necesario
reel (rē1) v. to go round and round
dar vueltas v. hater girar
rehabilitate (rē'ha-bil'i-tāt') v. to restore to useful life, as through therapy and
education
rehabilitar v. restaurar a una vida (Ail a través de la terapia y educación
repress (rĭ-prĕs) v. to hold something back
reprimir v. retener algo
resign (rĭ-zīn') v. to give up (a job or an award, for instance)
renunciar v. el acto de dejar (un trabajo)
resiliency (rĭ-zĭl' yən-sē) n. the ability to recover quickly from illness, change, or
misfortune
resiliencia n. la capacidad de recuperarse rápidamente de una enfermedad, un
cambio o la desventura
resume (rĭ-zoom') v. to go on again; continue
resumir v. volver a empezar; seguir
retaliate (rĭ-tăl'ē-āt') v. to get revenge; get even
vengarse v. ejercer represalias
retort (rĭ-tôrt) v. respond to a comment, such as an insult or argument, with a reply
of the same type, often quick, sharp, or witty
retorter v. responder a un comentario, tal como un insulto o argumento, con una
respuesta del mismo tipo, apenas rapida, penetrante o cómica
retribution (rĕt' rə-byoo'shən) n. punishment for bad behavior
punición n. castigo por actuar de una manera maleducada
revelation (rĕv'ə-lā'shən) n. something made known to others
revelación n. algo que se da a conocer otros
revert (rĭ-vûrt) v. to return to a former condition
revertir v. regresar a una condición anterior
revive (rĭ-vīv') v. to become conscious; wake up
meterse v. recobrar la consciencia; despertarse
righteous (rī'chəs) adj. caused by an insult to one's sense of right
honrado(a) adj. causado(a) por un insulto al sentido de lo apropiado
rummage (rŭm'ĭj) v. to search thoroughly by moving the contents about
revolver v. buscar moviendo los contenidos
S
sacrifice (săk'rə-fīs') v. to give up something highly valued for the sake of
something or someone more valued
sacrificar v. renunciar a algo de alto valor por consideración a algo o alguien de
más valor
sanction (săngk'shən) v. to give approval
sancionar v. aprobar
sanctuary (săngk'choo-ĕr'ē) n. shelter; protection
santuario n. refugio; protección
saturated (săch'ə-rā'tĭd) adj. soaked with moisture; drenched
saturado(a) adj. empapado de humedad; remojado
saunter (sôn'tər) v. to walk about slowly
pasear v. caminar lentamente
scheme (skēm) v. to plot or plan in a secretive way
formar proyectos v. maquinar una intriga o planear de una manera secreta
scorn (kôrn) v. to treat with contempt
despreciar v. tratar con desdén
scornfully (skôrn'fool-lē) adv. disdainfully
despectivamente adv. desdeñosamente
scowl (skoul) v. to look angry by drawing the eyebrows together and frowning
mirar cenudamente v. parecer enojado(a) por fruncir el entrecejo
scuttle (skŭtl) v. to run quickly, with hurried movements
correr tan aprisa como pueda v. correr con movimientos veloces
seize (sēz) v. to grab suddenly with force
asir v. agarrar de repente con fuerza
self-denial (sĕlf'dĭ-nī'əl) n. a giving up of one's own desires or interests
abnegación n. la devoluciOn de los propios deseos o intereses de una persona
sentimental (sĕn'tə-mĕn'tl) adj. showing or characterized by tender emotions
sentimental adj. que muestra o se caracteriza por emociones tiernas
sheepishly (shē'pĭsh-lē) adv. with a bashful or embarrassed look
timidamente adv. con una mirada timida o avergonzada
shrewdly (shrood'lē) adv. wisely; in a clever way
astutamente adv. inteligentemente; de una manera lista
shuffle (shŭf'əl) v. to slide the feet along the ground while walking
arrastrar los pies v. mover los pies a través del suelo al caminar
simultaneously (sī'məl-tā'nē-əs-1ē) adv. at the same time
simultâneamente adv. que pasa o se hate al mismo tiempo
smugly (smŭg'1ē) adv. in a self-satisfied way
presumidamente adv. de una manera que tiene satisfacción vanidosa
snag (snăg) v. to catch and tear rasgar con un gancho v. agarrarse y romperse
solitude (sŏl'ĭ-tood) n. the state of being alone
soledad It el estado de estar solo(a) specify (spds'a-fi) v. to make known or
identify especificar v. revelarse o identificar
speculating (spĕk'yə-lā-tĭng) adj. thinking about different possibilities; guessing
what might happen speculate v.
especulativo(a) adj. que piensa en las posibilidades; que adivina lo que puede
pasar especular v.
spherical (sfîr'ĭkəl) adj. having the shape of a round ball
esferico(a) adj. que tiene la forma de una pelota redonda
spurn (spûrn) v. to reject or turn down scornfully
desdefiar v. rechazar o rehusar con desden
squander (skwŏn'dər) v. to spend carelessly
malgastar v. derrochar
staunchest (stônch'əst) adj. strongest; most determined; most firm
más solido(a) adj. rmis fuerte; mãs determinado(a); más firme
stride (strīd) v. to walk with long steps; past tense—strode
caminar a zancadas v. andar con pasos largos
stupefying (stoo'pə-fī'ĭng) adj. stunning; shocking stupefy v.
estupefacto(a) adj. asombroso(a)
stupendous (stoo-pĕn'dəs) adj. tremendous; amazing
estupendo(a) adj. tremendo(a); impresionante
submissive (səb-mĭs'ĭv) adj. willing to give in to or obey another
sumiso(a) adj. con la voluntad de obedecer a otro
substance (sŭb'stəns) n. material quality
substancia n. calidad material
suede (swād) n. leather with a soft, fuzzy surface
gamuza n. piel con superficie suave y vellosa
suite (swēt) n. a group of rooms used as a unit
suite n. apartamento lujoso
summon (sŭm'ən) v. to call for or send for with authority or urgency; to order to
come or appear
convocar v. Ilamar o mandar Ilamar con autoridad o urgencia; mandar a Ilegar y
aparecer
surly (sûr'lē) adj. ill-tempered; gruff
aspero(a) adj. de mal humor; rudo(a)
surplus (sûr'pləs) adj. extra; more than is needed
sobrante adj. excedente; más de lo necesario
susceptible (sə-sĕp'tə-bəl) adj. easily affected or influenced
susceptible adj. afectado(a) o influido(a) facilmente
T
tantalizing (tăn'təlī'zĭng) adj. arousing interest without satisfying it tantalize v.
tentador(a) adj. que inspira interes sin satisfacer tentar v.
taunt (tônt) v. to make fun of; jeer
burlar v. provocar con burlas; ridiculizar
teeming (tē'mĭng) adj. full of people or things teem v.
prolifico(a) adj. Ileno(a) de gente o cosas estar Ileno(a) v.
tensing (tĕns'ĭng) n. a tightening or becoming taut tense v.
tension n. aplicaciOn de fuerza para ajustar tensar v.
throb (thrŏb) v. to beat strongly (as though hurting)
pulsar v. latir fuertemente (como si doliera)
toll (tōl) n. the amount of loss or destruction caused by a disaster
numero de muertos n. el nürnero de personas que muere a causa de un desastre
transform (trăns-fôrm') v. to change the form or appearance of
transformar v. cambiar la forma o aspecto de
transitory (trăn'sĭ-tôr'ē) adj. lasting only a short time; temporary
transitorio(a) adj. dura solo un ratito; temporal
translucent (trăns-loo'sənt) adj. allowing light to pass through
translacido(a) adj. que deja pasar la luz
treachery (trĕch'ə-rē) n. willful betrayal
traición n. engario deliberado
tread (trĕd) v. to walk on, in, or along
pisar v. caminar encima, en o a través
tribute (trĭb'yoot) n. an action or gift that honors a deserving individual
tributo n. homenaje o celebración en nombre de una persona que lo merece
trudge (trŭj) v. to walk heavily; plod
caminar pesadamente v. andar con trabajo; andar pausadamente
U
ultimate (ŭl'tə-mĭt) adj. final; most important
ultimo(a) adj. final; más importante
unaccountably (ûn'ə-koun'tə-blē) adv. without apparent explanation
inexplicablemente adv. sin explicación aparente
unbridled (ŭn-brīd'ld) adj. lacking in restraint or control
sin brio adj. sin restricciones
unobtrusively (ŭn'əb-troo'sĭv-lē) adv. in a way that attracts little or no attention
discretamente adv. de una manera que atrae poca atencion
unperceived (ŭn'pər-sēvd') adj. not seen
desapercibido(a) adj. no visto(a)
unsound (ŭn-sound') adj. not free from fault or weakness; not sensible; inaccurate
defectuoso(a) adj. débil; falta de sentido; no preciso(a)
urgency (ûr'jən-sē) n. insistence; a condition of pressing importance
urgencia n. insistencia; condicion de importancia emergente
usher (ŭsh'ər) v. to make known the presence or arrival of; to introduce
anunciar v. revelar la presencia o Ilegada; introducir
V
vainglorious (vān-glôr'ē-əs) adj. vain and boastful
vanaglorioso(a) adj. vano(a) y jactancioso(a)
vainly (vān'lē) adv. uselessly; to no avail
vanamente adv. inailmente; sin resultado
valedictorian (văl'ĭ-dĭk-tôr'ē-ən) n. student with highest academic rank in a class
valedictorian a la persona que saca las notas más altas de una clase
vengeance (vĕn'jəns) n. the infliction of punishment in return for an offense
venganza n. imposición de castigo por una ofensa
vicinity (vĭ-sĭn'ĭ-tē) a neighborhood
vecindad n. barrio
vigil (vĭj'əl') n. a time of staying awake in order to keep watch or guard something
vigilia n. periodo de mantenerse despierto(a) para observar o cuidar algo
vigor (vĭg'ər) n. physical or mental strength, energy, or force
vigor n. fuerza o energia fisica o mental
vile (vīl) adj. disgusting, unpleasant
de sabor desagradable adj. tener sabor a bilis
virtuous (vûr'choo-əs) adj. morally good; honorable
virtuoso(a) adj. de buen carácter moral; honorable
W
wan (wŏn) adj. sickly; pale
descolorido(a) adj. enfermizo(a); pálido(a)
welfare (wĕl'fâr) n. well-being
bienestar n. comodidad
whim (hwĭm) n. a fanciful notion or impulse
capricho n. una idea o impulso fantastico
wily (wī'lē) adj. crafty; sly
artero(a) adj. habil; travieso(a)
wince (wĭns) v. to shrink as in pain or distress
sobresaltarse v. recular como si se sintiera dolor
wretched (rĕch' ĭd) adj. miserable
lastimoso(a) adj. miserable
Z
zeal (zēl) n. eagerness; enthusiasm
fervor n. ardor; entusiasmo