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International Review of Research in Emerging Markets and the Global Economy (IRREM)
An Online International Research Journal (ISSN: 2311-3200)
2015 Vol: 1 Issue 2
A Review of Literatures on Current Zakat Issues:
An Analysis between 2003 - 2013
FUADAH JOHARI,
Faculty of Economics and Muamalat,
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM),
Malaysia.
E-mail: [email protected]
AHMAD FAHME MOHD ALI,
Faculty of Economics and Muamalat,
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM),
Malaysia.
E-mail: [email protected]
MUHAMMAD RIDHWAN AB. AZIZ,
Faculty of Economics and Muamalat,
Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia (USIM),
Malaysia.
E-mail: [email protected]
_____________________________________________________________________________
Abstract
The objective of this article is to analyze the related literatures on zakat between 2003 until
2013. The methodology of this article is through qualitative research based on content-analysis
on previous articles and literatures that specifically discuss about zakat between 2003 until
2013. This study looked at several variables which number of publication by year, subject areas,
and a brief content analysis of zakat issues such as management, collection, distribution and
poverty alleviation on zakat. This is important in order to examine its prospects for research in
the future. The general finding of this article shows that there are a lot of issues pertaining to
zakat management, collection, distribution and poverty alleviation program were published for
this timeframe. Henceforth, this article provides significant suggestions and strategies for the
future exploration on zakat.
_____________________________________________________________________________
Keywords: Zakat Management, Zakat Collection, Zakat Distribution, Zakat Issues, Poverty,
Islamic Finance.
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1. Introduction
The literal meaning of zakat can be defined as grow, blessing, pure, good and renowned.
Therefore, Zakat is one of the pillars of faith in Islam that emphasizes the socio-economic development.
Thus, any discussion on zakat in the context of worship usually associated with the socio-economic
factor, especially in aiding the underprivileged based on the Maslahat (society) concept (al-Qardhawi,
2000). Further, its purpose is to redistribute wealth of the society among the poor by providing a certain
amount from a specific wealth (non-poor) for the benefit of those who are entitled to receive it as
stipulated by Allah s.w.t. (Ibn. Qudamah, 1968; Ahmad, A., 1984, p.4). There are eight prescribed
categories of the recipients of Zakat. Allah s.w.t has determined these categories when He says:
“Sadaqat (zakat) are for the poor and the needy, and those employed to administer (the Zakat), for those
whose hearts are to be won over (Muallafat-al-Qulub), and for the freeing of human beings from
bondage, and (for) those who are burdened with debts, and (for every struggle) in Allah’s cause, and
(for) the wayfarer: (this is) an ordinance from Allah, Allah is All-Knowing, full of Wisdom.”
(9:60)1
Islam establishes the zakat as a compulsory charity tool that can be used to enhance the
development of the eight categories of recipients (Al-Quran, 9:60). From eight categories of them, five
are meant for poverty eradication such as the poor, the needy, the debtors, the slaves (release them from
captivity), and the travellers in need. Others are the zakat administrative, 'those whose hearts are made
inclined' (to Islam), and in the way of Allah. Although these eight categories of recipients have been
mentioned in the Qur'an, but the first priority in the use of zakat funds has to be accorded to the
alleviation of poverty through assistance to the poor and the needy (Hassan, M. K. 2007, p.28).
2. Literature Review
Zakat conceptually can be defined as, a compulsory levy imposed on Muslim after fulfilling 1)
minimum value required for zakat (nisab) and 2) evaluated after completing 1 Islamic year (1 Haul)
which is about 355 days, as wealth redistribution mechanism from the comparatively well-to-do members
of the Muslim Society to the destitute and needy (Bakar, N and Rahman, 2007, p.30). Zakat has several
meanings according to literary term; it means blessing, growth, development, purity, and neatness (Razak,
M. I. M., Ismail, M., & Hamzah, A. S. A. 2013, p.141). Economically, based on the study being done by
Ahmad (2008, p.92), zakat in theory will result in economic prosperity as Zakat is paid from those who
have surplus, to the poor. So that, this will improve and enhance the poor‟s purchasing power which may
lead to a higher demand on goods.
The institutions of zakat are among several instruments instituted by Islam to combat and
enhance welfare in the society. Zakat helps to generate a flow of funds and recruit the necessary
manpower. The word zakat means growth, cleanness and purity in Arabic (Hassan, M. K. 2007, p.28).
1
The Holy Al-Qur‟an
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Zakat also play its role as a fiscal mechanism, zakat performs some of the major functions of modern
public finance, which deals with social security entitlements, social assistance grants for childcare, food
subsidy, education, health care, housing, and public transportation in a welfare state (Yusoff et.al 2012,
p.449). Besides that, zakat creates a balanced growth cycle. When a certain percentage of one‟s wealth is
spent annually over the foregoing eight categories as prescribed in the Qur‟an, zakat has a significant
economic impact on society (Tarar et.al, 2012, p.153). Income support provided to the poor and needy
would result in a measured increase of the money supply in the economy causing upward shift in demand
for goods and services. To support this upward shift in the demand for basic necessities of life such as
food, clothing and shelter, the production facilities would gradually expand and begin to absorb the idle
capital. In order to support the increased production, the economy would generate more jobs and new
employment opportunities. This added employment in turn would generate more demand for goods and
services, more room for additional investments, and finally, the growth cycle based on balance
consumption would contribute to a balance economic growth (Muhammad Ridhwan Ab. Aziz, 2012).
3. Methodology
This article adopts content analysis based on several literatures on zakat issues for ten years
between 2003 and 2013. The arrangement will be based on thematic according to the issues and the
chronological review from 2003 and 2013. 108 articles had been gathered based on online Google
Scholar search on related articles. The review focuses specifically on the articles written in the areas of
zakat. It follows that the articles would be classified into four categories namely zakat management, zakat
collection, zakat distribution and poverty. The articles would be classified into four categories namely
zakat management, zakat collection, zakat distribution and poverty. The classifications are made based on
either the content or the abstract of the articles. It is noted that some areas might overlap due to different
nature and research interest of the specified journals. Therefore, this review would categorize the article
based on these criteria: most frequent mention of key words and also content inclined towards categories
of zakat management, zakat collection, zakat distribution and poverty.
4. Results
4.1 Number of Publications by Year
There were 108 articles published which were related to zakat from the observed 10 years period.
Table 1 presents the distribution of articles by year. It shows that the number of articles published per
year varies from 5 to 17, and most articles published in the year 2012. The least article was published
during 2010.
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Year of Publication
Number of Articles
Percentage (%)
2003
6
6
2004
8
7
2005
9
8
2006
13
12
2007
7
7
2008
6
6
2009
11
10
2010
5
5
2011
10
8
2012
17
16
2013
16
15
Total
108
100
Table 1: Number of Publications by Year
4.2 Quantitative List by Subject Area of Articles
Table 2 shows the growth of each subject according to the year of publication and subject involved. It
is indicated that articles related to zakat management had been written and published almost every year
(with total of 39 articles from the observed period), followed by Zakat and Poverty with 24 published
articles, zakat collection and Zakat distribution with 22 published articles.
Year of Publication
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
Management
Collection
Distribution
Poverty
Total
2003
Subject of
Article
Total
4
1
0
1
6
1
2
2
3
8
3
1
2
3
9
10
1
0
2
13
2
4
0
1
7
3
1
2
1
7
4
3
3
1
11
1
2
1
1
5
2
2
3
3
10
5
2
5
4
16
4
4
4
4
16
39
23
22
24
108
Table 2: Quantitative List by Subject Area of Articles
5. Discussion on Issues Highlighted
Due to broad coverage of discussion on zakat, this article had categorized the issues into four topics
of discussion which are management of zakat, zakat collection, zakat distribution and, poverty and zakat.
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5.1 Issues in Zakat Management
Salim (2003) in his research mentioned that, one of the recent developments indicating the resurgence
of Islam is the growing of Islamic philanthropic and welfare organisations with modern management,
drawing funds from Muslim alms and zakat. The objective of zakat management is to achieve the best
possible outcome in the timely collection and distribution of zakat as ordained in Islamic Shariah
(Rahman et.al 2003, p. 40). Therefore, the efficiency of any system proposed in zakat management must
be assessed in terms of achieving that particular objective in the best possible way (Azeez, 2003, p.32).
The role of zakat organization is to promote social justice and to ensure sustenance of economically
unfortunate sections of the society (Johari, F, 2004, p.). The efficiency of the zakat system cannot be
viewed independently of the extent of trust that zakat payers may assign to it. The whole idea of zakat
management is to help Muslims perform this pillar of Islam and establish its primary function as a means
to alleviate poverty. But if trust is not sufficiently maintained between Muslims and zakat centre, the
potential zakat payers would prefer to pay out zakat directly to their own relatives who are poor or needy,
rather than deal through the zakat centre (Wahid et.al, 2004, p.145).
Like any other non-profit organization, zakat organizations face various kinds of challenges due to
environmental changes in modern societies (Abdul Rahim, 2006, p. 93). Creativity and innovation are
important elements to ensure the relevance of zakat organizations in modern Muslim societies (Mujaini,
2005). According to Abdul Rahim (2006), zakat practitioners need to change their mindset and be opened
to new techniques in administering zakat (Abdul Rahim, 2006, p. 95). Al-Qardhawi (1999) indirectly
recommended that zakat practitioners must be creative and innovative in facing new challenges such as
changing needs and modern demands. Zakat administrators must ensure that the concept of ijtihad
(diligence) should be incorporated in their management of zakat funds (Mujaini, 2005). Innovations on
worldly affairs and ijtihad in the context of zakat must be part of their management practice (Abdul
Hamid, 2003, p.96; Mujaini, 2005). In the modern management of zakat, practitioners must be
knowledgeable for them to look at creativity and innovation as something that can assist them to achieve
the objectives of zakat.
According to Ahmad et.al (2005) the satisfaction on zakat distribution is positively correlated to the
zakat compliant behaviour. He also found that zakat compliant between states are varies, implying that
states possess different capabilities and performance in zakat management (Ahmad et.al, 2005, p. 63).
Prime implication of this study is that in order to raise zakat compliant towards formal institution, effort
for abolishing negative perception towards formal institution should be the prime agenda of zakat centre.
Another problem that has been recognized in Malaysian zakat institutions is the shortage of staff and
experts in the zakat institutions relative to the numerous tasks under their responsibilities. This limitation
may lead to inefficiency and ineffectiveness of zakat management performed or in other words under
potential performance by the zakat institutions (Sadeq; 1995; Masudul Alam Choudhury & Sofyan Syafri
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Harahap, 2008, p.615). This happened because of several problems including lack of management
expertise, lack of commitment, lack of information and legal aspects.
On the other hand, Ahmad (2006) examines the factors that influence the individual dissatisfaction
towards formal institutions in Malaysia. By using primary data, he found out that satisfaction towards the
zakat management significantly influences individual compliance behaviour towards formal institution.
He found out that 57% of 753 respondents were not satisfied with the current distribution of zakat in
Malaysia which significantly affect their payment of zakat to zakat institutions. The result indicates that
to attract more people to formal institutions, they should first increase the individual satisfaction. This can
be done by constantly improving zakat management, maintaining good will, becoming more transparent
and conducting more productive distribution scheme (Ahmad, 2006, p. 181).
Many studies urged that to implement the zakat localization as a potential public policy, a consensus
must be collected from the particular group that are the zakat recipients (asnaf) and zakat collectors (amil)
because these two groups are the grass root support to the zakat system. Muhammad Syukri (2002) urged
the implementation the concept of localization. His argument is based on several issues. First, the
statistics of zakat distribution in Malaysia show deficiency where most of the zakat fund was not fully
distributed to the zakat recipients. Only around 70 to 75 per cent zakat fund have been distributed in
Malaysia from 2001 until 2007 and almost 25 to 30 per cent were left idle. The significant reasons
referring to the problem were the emerging connection gap between zakat institution and zakat recipients.
Bureaucracy problems also happen in zakat application procedure and finally are the geographical
problem where potential zakat recipients could not be reached and identified by the amil because of their
homes were scattered in the village, district or state. A second issue that may arise from this case is the
payment done by zakat payer through the unofficial channel or in other word the zakat payer is paying
zakat direct to the zakat recipients (Muhammad Syukri, 2002, p. 21).
Consistent with this findings, Wahid et al. (2009) highlighted the issues of transparency and unclear
method of zakat distribution as the main reasons of dissatisfaction towards zakat institutions in Malaysia.
The majority of zakat payers in Malaysia are not satisfied with the way zakat institutions distributed the
zakat; they have felt that the process of distribution is vague and the information regarding to the zakat
distribution is unclear (Wahid et al., 2009, p. 1). Many studies also agreed that the zakat collection should
be disbursed immediately to the recipients and also should not be postponed (Nik Mustapha, 1991) and
without unwanted delay (Khaf, 1995, p. 20 and Mujaini, 1995).
Wahid et. al (2010) investigated the perceptions of zakat recipients (the end user) and the Zakat
Collector (the implementer) on whether localization of zakat distribution would be a possible solution to
address the problem of zakat management in Malaysia. He found out that the process of localization in
the long run could create another good output such as good governance, leading to higher investment in
human capital and social services as the poorest regions of the country chose projects according to their
greatest needs, increasing the democratic accountability of the state and others. In terms of zakat
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management, localization could be implemented by forming the local committees in the villages (Wahid
et. al, 2010, p.477). The zakat could be distributed closely to the zakat recipients especially the poor and
needy group and also other zakat recipients such as Fi Sabilillah (in the cause of Allah), Ibn Sabil
(wayfarer), Al-Riqab (slave) and others who could be recognized. It is learnt that this action could
increase awareness amongst the zakat payers and will also increase their satisfaction to make a zakat
payment through official channel. This will boost their confidence to pay zakat through zakat institution
and finally the zakat collection will be increased year by year. It will give a huge benefit to the zakat
recipients in the future (Bakar et.al, 2011, p.243). The main advantage is the local government could
easily distribute the goods and services to the local residents, provides citizens with the public goods and
services that they desire, able to target different bundles of public goods to different regions, because they
are close to the local people. It is interesting to note that the basic pillar of efficient zakat management
mentioned in the Quran is the class of zakat workers, not the head of State or ruler, even though the latter
are necessary for facilitating the activity of zakat workers (Suhaib et.al, 2009, p.316).
Meanwhile Hudayati (2010) support the centralizing zakat management due to strategic impact that
zakat centre enjoys through this strategy. By having it centralised, coordination between national zakat
institution and the fiscal policy maker might be implemented more easily. The zakat concept can also be
incorporated into fiscal policy formulated by government. Finally, by having a good and effective
management of zakat it is expected that the conversion of zakat recipients into zakat payers can take place
to indicate that the welfare improvement of the under-privileged segment is guaranteed. For example, the
Malaysia‟s zakat centre had provides interesting learning in term of zakat management by centralising it
at the state level, due to the authoritative power of each state ruler on the religious matter, including zakat.
This approach is very positive to make zakat collection effective and efficient. Further, she also clarifies
the ineffectiveness of centralized strategy. Through this approach the zakat institutions fail to reach those
needy people due to lack of information or worse due to absence of creative distribution management.
Single entity of zakat in each state causes no competition at all. It might imply serious problem in
managing zakat funds. Another potential problem is on how to deal with cross-state collection and
distribution. Centralising zakat institution at state level might also be viewed as decentralising at federal
level (Hudayati, 2010, p. 371).
Furthermore, it is very important for zakat organization to improve organizational members‟ learning
capabilities in order to better understand and manage the organization and its environment. Halim et. al
(2011) found out that learning culture elements of commitment to learning, knowledge sharing, and open
mindedness were embedded among staff of Lembaga Zakat Selangor (LZS)2. Some poverty alleviation
projects undertaken have been successful. However, the lack of learning and knowledge in managing and
monitoring projects awarded to aptitude deficiency beneficiaries, have led to many programmes‟ failure.
2
Selangor Zakat Centre
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The finding also reveals that the lack of knowledge and attitude of zakat beneficiaries too contributes
significantly to the success and failure of zakat assistance package. Some zakat beneficiaries are now
zakat payers but most are still zakat dependence despite they have been receiving the assistance for more
than a decade (Halim et. al, 2011, p. 47). Thus, the role of the zakat centre in the collection and
dissemination of zakat must be appreciated along the same rationale of intermediary services, which
brings together suppliers and demanders of a particular product or service efficiently (Bakar et.al, 2011, p.
237; Duka, 2013, p.138).
Suhaili Sarif (2014) found out that apparent from the usual collection and disbursement procedures,
the zakat centre did not have sufficient knowledge to administer and utilize the fund effectively (Suhaili
Sarif, 2014, p. 6). This situation, indirectly, suggests that the collection and disbursement of zakat during
this era was considered purely from the religious point of view, as a means of enabling Muslims to fulfil
their obligations. Zakat centre, at that time, had yet to realize the potential of the fund beyond the
religious perspective, especially in the economic sphere. In addition, there were many weaknesses, such
as the lack of reports and systematic records (Ahmad et.al, 2006, p.194). Zakat centre seldom disclosed
collection and disbursement statistics, or released periodic information as to what had been done with the
zakat money. This is actually not surprising, considering that the Zakat centre themselves did not have a
clue as to how to administer the fund effectively. Once the money reached the council offices, it was
normally kept in the council‟s account without being fully distributed (Ahmad et.al, 2005, p.57).
Finally, issues in zakat management can be briefly looking at the shift in the current practice of zakat,
the role of duty has been expanded beyond the religious perspective. The fund has been managed in such
a way as managing a business entity. In the disbursement aspect, it seems that the newly corporatized
bodies have to find the best way to persuade people to pay. The fund is also perceived as a tool in poverty
eradication and economic development. The study reveals that there is a general misconception of zakat,
as indicated in several standards and guidelines, which has consequently resulted in inappropriateness in
their proposed corporate zakat recognition and measurement and hence presentations. These inaccuracies,
in one way or another, have not been in line with the true spirit of zakat in Islam. Thus, some
unfavourable consequences may and in fact have already been implicated on the larger Muslim
community as a result (Muhammad et.al, 2009, p.9).
5.2 Issues in Zakat Collection
Ahmed (2004) estimates the potential of zakat collection and resource required for poverty alleviation
for a sample of 24 Islamic Development Bank (IDB) member countries by using a $1/day and $2/day
international poverty lines. He found that, at one extreme, Tunisia required only 0.3 per cent and 1.4 per
cent of its GDP for the alleviation of extreme poverty while at other extreme, Nigeria required huge
amount that is 107.7 per cent and 149.6 per cent of GDP respectively for poverty alleviation. Shirazi et. al
(2010) estimates the resources required and potential zakat collection for poverty elimination in 38 OIC
members countries. He found out that half of the sample countries not only meet their resources shortfall
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by potential zakat collection but also generate surplus funds which sufficient for the resource deficit
countries. He suggest that pooling of zakat funds from zakat surplus countries is needed because its
providing for resource deficit countries to eliminate the poverty (Shirazi et. al. 2010, p. 69). In calculating
the potential of zakat, Zarqa (2002) comes with estimation of the potential zakat proceeds in a
contemporary Islamic economy at about 3 per cent to 3.6 per cent of the GDP. He expresses reservation
on the possibility of using the extent of the coverage of zakat collection as a policy tool. He further argues
that the disbursement, mix ratio, cash mix ratio, the equilibrium share of other claims, and the dates of
collection and disbursement, all of which can be used as a controlling tools of fiscal policy since there is
nothing which prevents that in shariah.
Shirazi (2006) attempts to estimate the resource shortfall and potential zakat collection for poverty
elimination in the low‐income Muslim countries. He estimates the resource shortfall by utilizing the
international poverty lines (under USD 1 and 2) headcount and poverty gap index estimated by the World
Bank. Potential zakat collection has been estimated by utilizing Kahf's definitions of zakatable items with
some modifications. The study finds that some of the low‐income Muslim countries can meet their
resource gap under USD 1 international poverty line with potential zakat collection. However, other
countries, mostly belonging to Africa, cannot meet their resources shortfall from their potential zakat
collection (Shirazi, 2006, p. 17).
Yaumidin (2009) estimates the resource needed for poverty alleviation and potential zakat collection
for Malaysia and Indonesia. She concludes that Malaysia performs better than Indonesia. She replicates
the methodology employed by Ahmad (2004) which suffers the same shortcoming as discussed above.
Hassan and Khan (2007) find that zakat fund can largely facilitate the government budgetary expenditure
and support the poor through transfer of payment in Bangladesh. By allocating funds into eight groups of
zakat recipient, it is possible to increase the income and employment with the improvement of safety net
programmes. Zakat funds can increase the tax potential of the government through the improvement of
productivity, employment and output. They conclude that Zakat funds can replace the government
budgetary expenditures ranging from 21 per cent of ADP (annual development plan) in 1983-84 to 43 per
cent of ADP in 2004-2005. These funds can be used for other developmental and social expenditures.
They suggested that zakat should be included, for Bangladesh and rest of the Muslim countries, as a
poverty alleviation instrument in their PRSP (Hassan and Khan, 2007, p.27).
It has been emphasized that in Islam, the primary motivation of paying zakat should be the worship
(ta’abudi) factor. Muda et.al (2009) investigates the factors affecting individual decisions in zakat
contribution hence provide an understanding of their motivation. He indicates that participation in zakat is
not only motivated by religious factor but also self-satisfaction and organizational factors. The
implication is that the efforts to raise the level of zakat activities should emphasise not only the religious
aspect but also the individual‟s and organizational dimensions (Muda et.al. 2009, p.9). This may have
significant impacts on the personal financial planning and development of Islamic economic systems in
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general. Reinstein (2006) supported worship factor as one of the main motivations that contributes to the
compliance of zakat, sadaqa (donation) and other prosaically behaviour (ijtima’i). He further claimed that
the act of paying zakat could be an indicator of high level of iman (faith). This is because individual
compliance towards religious obligation to pay zakat is highly dependent on his belief of the religious
teaching. Apart from the worship factor, the individuals‟ level of understanding on Islamic principles will
also motivates people to comply the injunction to pay zakat. Lastly he also identified that religious belief
as an important determinant of religious and secular giving.
Muhammad Firdaus et.al. (2012) found out that Muslims who pay zakat on both periods monthly and
annually have a stronger faith, appreciation, altruism, and self‐appreciation. The place of choice to pay
the zakat/alms also affects the respondents‟ choice to pay the zakat on a monthly basis. The respondents
who pay zakat to formal institutions have a good judgment of the organization‟s performance. But there is
almost no significant difference between the perceptions of those who pay their zakat to formal or
informal institutions. Therefore, he estimates the total of zakat potential in Indonesia and explores the
relationship between demographic characteristics and zakat payment. The results show that total of all
zakat potential in Indonesia from various sources is approximately 217 trillion rupiah. This number is
equal to 3.4% of Indonesia‟s 2010 GDP. The study shows that education, occupation and income are
important factors which influence respondent‟s frequency and choice of place when paying zakat and
alms.
In addition, the new approach to fund collection has incorporated many ways of modern transaction,
such as Internet banking and other financial facilities. Such new practices are actually associated with the
business strategy where the zakat centre needs to have a corporate link with many financial institutions
(Suhaili et.al. 2009). To accomplish the strategy, it appears that the zakat centres have to think beyond
religion, treating the fund as a type of secular taxation in which people must be persuaded rather than
hoping they will willingly fulfil their own obligation (Suhaili et.al. 2009, p.495). As this zakat collection
is treated as a positive redistribution mechanism to improve socio-economic impact to the society.
5.3 Issues in Zakat Distribution
The traditional practice of zakat distribution in the form of cash payment will basically not help the
recipients, especially in the long term (Ahmed, Habib, 2004). Zakat beneficiaries are more likely to spend
most of the distributed wealth for the consumption as according to Qureshi, these groups have high
propensity to consume where there will be nothing spare for them to generate income (Qureshi, D. M.,
1989, p.41). Rahman also reminds that such a disbursement may also create a permanent class of
dependants with no motivation to work (Rahman, Afzalur, 1986). Hence, the traditional practice of giving
zakat in the form of monthly dole or in daily necessities should be limited to those who have no power of
sustenance, as such a distribution, according to Ahmed, will only manage to fulfil the basic necessities
without significantly changing the living standard of the recipient. He also further mentions that any
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ttempt to treat productive recipients like an unproductive one will only result in the poverty persisting
continuously (Ahmed, Habib, 2004).
Response to this issues, Parid (2001) suggests that zakat distribution must acquire at least a level of
sufficiency and comfort living for the recipient and his dependents. The distribution must be in certain
proportion that ensures continuity of quality life where the impact of the distribution is that the recipient
must obtain certain standard of living. Standard of living here means attaining the level of mobilizing
basic essentials (daruriyyat) and comfort (hajiyyat). Othman al- Habshi (1990; 1998; 2006) clarifies that
zakat is the most effective means to assist the poor and needy. Islam has often stresses on the believers to
consider the role of zakat seriously, in particular, in improving the lives of the downtrodden. He also
expresses that the proportion of zakat received by the poor should have helped them improve their
standard of living, namely, in fulfilling their daruriyyat and hajiyyat needs which forms as the minimum
of their quality of life. Therefore, the funds received should enable them to enhance their life.
As for the disbursement aspect, the consideration is mostly to utilize zakat as a poverty eradication
mechanism. The current target is not merely relieving the poor temporarily but enriching them instead in
the hope that the recipients will be transformed and become payers (Hassan, 2007, p.27). Hence, the zakat
fund is now being used as an income generation initiative, a modern development approach to release the
poor permanently. The redefinition of recipients and the introduction of new ways of disbursement
alongside the economic perspective of poverty eradication is a step towards the translation of what has
been imagined by the scholars.
The concept of income generation through zakat has never been extensively discussed in any specific
writing (Suhaili et.al. 2009, p.467). There are, however, a number of Muslims economists and Islamic
jurists who propose that zakat should be disbursed in such a way that empowers the recipients and builds
their capability to generate income. Ahmed (2004, p. 64), suggests that zakat distribution should be able
to provide the necessary inputs such as human, physical and financial capital in order to reduce the
poverty of the able bodied group. According to him, specific programs have to be designed to provide
support for skill development, provision of physical capital such as taxis and sewing machines, and
financial capital to start a business so that the poor can be fully employed and earn a living. Afzalur
(1986) also argues that zakat should be used in providing sources of livelihood to the poor and the needy
according to their skills, individual skill and varying needs of different geographical units (Afzalur
Rahman, 1986, p. 260). He also stresses that zakat funds should be used to provide necessary technical
equipment and machinery to artisans and craftsmen. In the meantime, he proposes that cottage industries
should be set up in rural areas where poor villagers who have plenty of free time to be busy with
subsidiary occupations for extra income. He believes that direct cash disbursement will not be effective in
bringing about any better changes to the eligible recipients.
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In discussions of the above matter, researchers usually distinguish between productive and
unproductive recipients, where the former refers to able bodied persons and the latter to the incapacitated,
such as the disabled and the elderly (Ahmed, 2003). He said:
“The productive households are poor because they cannot use the full potential of their resources due
to some constraints. These constraints are related to the limited human, physical and financial capital
needed for an economic activity that provides the household a decent income. Thus, the institutions of
zakat and awqaf should be able to provide the necessary inputs like human, physical and financial capital
in order to reduce the poverty for the productive group. Specific programs have to be designed to provide
support for education and skill development, provision of physical capital (like a taxi, sewing machine,
etc), and making financial capital available to start a business so that the poor can be productively
employed and earn a living. For the unproductive members of the society such as elderly, sick, widows,
handicapped, etc., the institutions of zakat and awqaf should be able to provide them with periodic
stipends to afford consumption of the basic needs.”
From the above statement, it can be concluded that a productive recipient is one who has potential to
earn their living independently despite their limitations. Thus, according to Ahmed, this group must be
facilitated based on their need in order to enhance their capabilities so that they can earn their living
independently. This, however, must be properly managed; a specific program has to be designed to
provide necessary supports such as education, skill developments and financial capital. Differing from the
productive, unproductive recipients such as elderly, sick, widows and disabled must be helped by periodic
stipends with zakat funds disbursed from time to time to fulfil their basic needs (Suhaili, 2009, p.460).
The distribution of zakat funds for helping recipients to yield income is also sometimes classified as
productive in nature as the zakat provision could help recipients to produce something to generate their
income and will not end in itself. For example, Suhaili (2009) uses the term productive fund to refer to the
use of zakat for capital support of the economically weak entrepreneur (Suhaili, 2009, p.461). On the
other hand, in the case of distribution where the recipients will spend the zakat on food and basic
necessities, the disbursement is usually seen as for consumption in purpose.
According to Abdul Rahman and Ahmad (2010), in general zakat distribution method is still focused
on the periodical form of direct payment where asnaf (zakat recipient) is given zakat money monthly or
annually (Abdul Rahman A., 2010, p. 291.). Nevertheless, many cases have shown that direct payments
reducing asnaf‟s incentive to work and end up being dependent on zakat funds. Although direct payment
of zakat is still acceptable especially for non-productive asnafs such as the disabled and elderly, it is
recommended that zakat should be distributed in the form of capital finance to the poor and needy in
order to encourage business activities among asnaf. In a long run, it is expected that the productive asnaf
will be more independent, and able to support themselves and their families, thus escaping from the
poverty (Hayati et.al. 2012). Moreover, in some countries such as Malaysia and Pakistan, zakat funds are
also used to help the household dependants by sponsoring their school and university fees (Ahmed, 2004).
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It seems that these educational and training programmes are useful to prevent the asnafs‟ children from
living in poverty in the future due to the lack of knowledge.
The effectiveness of zakat collection and distribution mainly depends on the good governance of
zakat institution. However, distribution of zakat is very significant to the Muslim country and community
especially to eradicate poverty, improve economic growth and also the quality of life (Wahab et.al. 2012,
p.108, Bakar et. al, 2011, p.237; Semerdjian, E. 2010, pp.505). However many studies illustrate that zakat
management reported incidences of negative perceptions from the zakat payers on the management on
zakat funds especially in term of distribution (Sanep et. al 2006, p.270; Syukri, 2002; and Abdul Halim et.
al, 2008, p. 129). If the zakat institution cannot be addressed properly, it could raise negative impact on
the future development of the zakat institution. Indeed, there was a study suggested the zakat institution
should apply the concept of corporate governance in its management (Shawal and Hasan, 2007, p.66).
Saladin et.al. (2011) examines the present poverty measurement practiced by Islamic institutions in
Malaysia. He compared the difference between three monetary variables which are Income, Poverty Line
Index (PLI) and Zakat Poverty Line (ZPL). He found out that these monetary variables are significantly
related with each other. This association could be used by authorities to understand the poverty
phenomenon from an Islamic perspective. However, there are some drawbacks in the monetary approach.
Firstly, the needs of individuals within the same age group is not exactly the same due to the differences
in metabological rate. Secondly, nonmonetary items which reflect the quality of life such as size, type and
ownership of house, education level are not included in the calculation of ZPL and PLI. Due to these
reasons, policy makers and researchers in the developed nations have opted for other approaches such as
capability and social exclusion approaches which are multidimensional in nature that includes nonmonetary indicators. He then proposed a new indicator called Islamic poverty indicator (IPI)
incorporating the various dimensions would have an impact on Islamic institutions as it gives a new
perspective of measuring poverty from a micro perspective. Using methods such as index, the IPI is
envisaged to reflect the multi-dimensional phenomenon of poverty in a more holistic way. Thus, it is
strongly recommended that a study on formulating the IPI to be carried out. This would enhance the
poverty measurement from an Islamic perspective as it comprises of monetary and non-monetary
components using maqasid al-shariah principles (Saladin et. al, 2011, p. 127).
Fuadah et.al. (2013) demonstrates literately the importance of zakat towards the economic
development among new convert. As one of the several instruments by Islam, Zakat is important to
combat and enhance welfare in the society. It also helps to generate a flow of funds and recruit the
necessary manpower (Fuadah et.al. 2013, p.36). She found out that zakat has a significant economic
impact on society mostly on new convert by taking a certain percentage of one‟s wealth is spent annually
over the foregoing eight categories as prescribed in the Qur‟an. Income support provided to the new
convert would result in a measured increase of the money supply in the economy causing upward shift in
demand for goods and services. To support this upward shift in the demand for basic necessities of life
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such as food, clothing and shelter, the production facilities would gradually expand and begin to absorb
the idle capital. To support the increased production, the economy would generate more jobs and new
employment opportunities. This added employment would generate more demand for goods and services,
more room for additional investments and finally, the growth cycle based on balance consumption would
contribute to a balance economic growth. This research later been supported with consequence findings,
show that zakat distribution gives positive impact in reducing poverty in unique aspect of the particular
recipients in Malaysia (Johari, F et al, 2014a, p.337) (Johari, F et al, 2014b, p.48) (Johari, F et al, 2015,
p.50).
5.4 Issues in Zakat as a Tool for Poverty Alleviation
According to Kahf (2004), implementation of zakat can provide micro financing to the poor. Zakat
can be given out to the poor for consumption purposes to avoid diversion of funds from production. The
combination of micro financing and zakat funds will make it easier for the poor to break out of the
poverty cycle (Kahf, 2004, p.19). In addition, Islam establishes zakat as a compulsory charity tool that
can be used on eight purposes. Among them, five are meant for poverty eradication such as the poor, the
needy, the debtors, the slaves (to free them from captivity), and the travellers in need. Other heads are the
administrative cost of zakat, 'those whose hearts are made inclined' (to Islam), and in the way of Allah.
Although eight heads for spending Zakat revenue have been mentioned in the Qur'an, there is general
agreement that the first priority in the use of Zakat funds has to be accorded to the alleviation of poverty
through assistance to the poor and the needy (Hassan, M. K., 2006, p.16).
The effectiveness of helping the poor is depends on the method of distribution and also the purpose of
it. This method however, needs to be strengthened and analyzed from time to time so it will serve the
purpose to help the poor to have a better life. The previous research which discussed on the effectiveness
of zakat on poverty reduction strategy focused on several aspects. Hairunizam Wahid. et.al. (2004, p.160)
assess zakat distribution based on the quality of life, Fuadah Johari (2004) viewed this form the effects of
the distribution of the income, while Mujaini Tarimin (2005) also assess the impact of zakat in terms of
income but towards professional management, while Ahmad Fuad Mohammad (2006) evaluated in terms
of income. Patmawati Ibrahim (2010, p.110) viewed this on the pro rata distribution, Nurzaman (2011,
p.15) measures the effectiveness of zakat distribution based on the Human Development Index (HDI) and
Rosbi (2009, p. 60) measure the successful of zakat distribution based on five elements (religion, life,
mind, dignity and wealth).
Mashreque et.al. (2006) revealed that the strength of zakat as a poverty alleviation tool depends on
how much of the prevailing poverty gaps would be financed by zakat proceeds. The strength can be
measured by portion of poverty gap that zakat can finance at rural and urban areas. This rural-urban
segregation does not have any legal implication but it provides insights on the effect of interventions
pursued on regional basis. The information so received may help preparing policies which will encourage
resources to be transferred wherever these would be of best use. It is quite evident that from his study on
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poverty alleviation in Bangladesh, zakat collected from rural area can cover only 14.8% of the rural
poverty gap in 1997. The coverage rises over time and becomes 24.7% in 2005. Per capita urban zakat
receipts covers 67% of the urban poverty gap and it increases up to 84.3% by the year 2005. The
extremely low coverage of poverty gap by rural zakat receipts shows severity of rural poverty compared
to urban poverty and the limitation of any poverty alleviation strategy solely based on rural zakat
(Mashreque et.al, 2006, p. 245). This warrants for mitigation strategy with tools beyond zakat with the
necessary condition that the intervention package must be rural biased and ensures net transfer of
resources primarily from the rich to poor and equally from urban to rural.
Yusoff (2006) analyses the potential of zakat as the major fiscal policy instrument in an Islamic State.
Zakat plays its role in the macroeconomic stabilization policy through the non-discretionary and
discretionary policy. The built-in stabilizer mechanism occurs when zakat collection is automatically
reduced during recession giving more money to people to spend which tends stimulate the economy;
while during the boom period more zakat is collected, reducing the ability of the people to spend which
tends to dampen economic activities. These reduce macroeconomic fluctuations. As a discretionary fiscal
policy, the government varies the disbursement of zakat to the recipients whenever necessary during the
phases of the business cycle (Yusoff, 2006, p.141). During the expansion phase of a business cycle, the
government decreases zakat disbursement to reduce aggregate spending. Likewise zakat disbursement is
increased when the economy is in the downswing to increase aggregate spending. Then Yusoff (2010)
provide concrete empirical evidence in support of zakat as a fiscal tool in an Islamic state. Specifically,
his empirical evidence using Malaysian panel data supports the hypothesis that zakat spending is a potent
fiscal instrument to stabilize macroeconomic fluctuations. He suggests that Muslim countries must make
all effort to establish zakat as the major tool for stabilization policy. In order to make this a success, the
zakat collection and zakat spending have to be carried out in the most effective and efficient manner
(Yusoff, 2010, p.158). As long as zakat collection and spending are disorganized we can never achieve
the potential of zakat as an effective fiscal instrument.
M. Kabir Hassan and Juanyed Masrur Khan (2007) estimate the impact of zakat funds on the annual
development plan of Bangladesh. The zakat funds can increase the taxation potential of the government
through the improvement of productivity, employment and output. Further, the implementation of zakat
in Bangladesh has several potential effects on government budgets such as relieving budget categories
targeted for poverty alleviation for other budgetary need, increase the potential of taxation through the
improvement of productivity, employment and output, and also zakat collection can be used as an
important economic policy tools by the government (M. Kabir Hassan and Juanyed Masrur Khan, 2007,
p. 25).
Saiful Azhar Rosly, (2010) explained that zakat plays an important role in a pivotal role in poverty
eradication and income redistribution of the Muslim people and it forms a critical component of public
finance in Islam. Zakat administration in essence deals with the collection of zakat from zakat payers and
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distribution of zakat to the eight recipients (asnafs). He explained that the increasing number of
shareholdings by Muslims in business corporations as well as companies using the Islamic label such as
Islamic banks and takaful companies has provide strong basis for a systematic and efficient zakat system
of collection and distribution (Saiful Azhar Rosly, 2010, p. 144).
Dimas Bagus et.al. (2010) study about the power of zakat in poverty alleviation and found out that
zakat can give impact in terms of consumption and investment variable. Thus, the more zakat disbursed to
the recipient, the more in increase the amount of aggregate consumption created into economy (Dimas
Bagus et.al, 2010, p. 420). In spite of in the Islamic economic system, zakat payer will transfer their
excess income or wealth to zakat recipient which indirectly will promote the higher propensity to
consume of zakat recipient. For the zakat payer side, they will reduce the consumption, and turn into
saving/investment activities. However, it finally also will create real economy through investment project
financing or credit instrument.
Further, Hussin and Ahmad (2010) reported that overall, only 6.9% out of 537 respondents that
received capital aid from zakat institutions in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur managed to pass the Had
Kifayah (Zakat Poverty Line) of poverty. The study further explained that the reason behind the high
percentage of failure is mainly due to the amount of capital aid received from the Zakat institutions
(Hussin and Ahmad, 2010, p.5). They found that the percentage of success is highest if the amount of
capital received is sufficient. Furthermore, Wahid et al. (2004) studied on the impacts of zakat to the
quality of life of the Asnafs (recipient) by examining their satisfaction on the zakat received. It was found
that the respondents were generally not satisfied with the zakat distribution as education and social
involvement were the only factors that the respondents were satisfied with relative to other quality of life
variables such as transportation, communication, health, and shelter (Wahid et al. 2004, p.7). Hossain, M.
(2005) looked at how the implementation of the institution of zakat commerce and the merchants. He
presented the problems about the concept, trading systems, receiving alms, division and problems
encountered. The results of the study provide implications for the influence in a commercial
implementation of the charity Muslim region (Hossain, M., 2005, p.17).
Mohamad (2011) examines the impact of zakat spending and education on economic growth using
panel data where the cross-section units are the fourteen states of Malaysia. Education and economic
growth are represented by student enrolment ratio and growth of real GDP of each state (Mohamad, 2011,
p.181). Empirical evidence supports the hypothesis that zakat spending and education are important
determinants of real GDP growth suggesting that they are essential ingredients to be considered in
formulating economic development programs in the Muslim countries. Therefore, Muslim countries must
make all efforts to establish zakat and education as the major ingredients in the development policy. In
order to make this a success, every Muslim country must organize zakat collection and zakat spending in
the most effective and efficient manner.
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Several issues highlighted in previous studies on the effectiveness of zakat in alleviating poverty in
Malaysia. Ab. Rahman et al. (2012) highlighted the issues of inefficiency of zakat distribution thus
affecting the objective of combating poverty. They argued that studies found that there were bureaucracy
problems in zakat Institutions (ZI) in Malaysia which slow down the application process such as the
requirement for students to make an application every year to ZI although their application has been
approved during their first year. Besides distribution process, inefficient in collecting zakat has also been
highlighted. For example, the Pusat Pungutan Zakat /MAIWP3 on 2010 report, only 160,000 out of
approximately 2 million Muslims population in Kuala Lumpur (8%) are paying zakat. Md. Ramli et al.
(2011) highlighted the issue of asnaf attitude in receiving capital aid from zakat institution in Malaysia.
They found that some of the recipients of the capital aid did not possess the right behaviour to become
entrepreneurs thus affecting their business performance (Md. Ramli et al. 2011, p.13).
Ahmad Fahme et al. (2013) examines the effectiveness of monthly zakat distribution as a mechanism
to poverty reduction in the state of Kelantan, Malaysia. 481 respondents were randomly selected from
Kelantan‟s zakat recipient‟s list from the poor and needy category for ten districts in Kelantan. In-depth
interview were used to gather the data. For analysing the data, descriptive statistics were applied. Results
indicate that zakat elasticity is about 0.46, suggesting that, holding other variables constant, if the zakat
distribution goes up by 1 per cent, the monthly income goes up by 0.46 per cent. Further, the male
coefficient is about 0.15, meaning that the male gender receives about 0.15 per cent more income
compare to female gender, again holding other variables constant (Ahmad Fahme et al. 2013, p.181).
Thus, zakat distribution is significant in determining the income distribution among this group and
bringing positive effect towards improving the income distribution of this group.
6. Conclusion
Analysis of the articles related to critical current zakat issues between 2003 to 2013 can be concluded
that, zakat management can be briefly looked at the shift in the current practice to the beyond of the
religious perspective. This is because, the main objective of zakat is the achievement of socio economic
justice. Thus, it is important for zakat to be managed in the most efficient way. The whole idea of zakat
management is to help Muslims perform this pillar of Islam and establish its primary function as a means
to alleviate poverty. However, if trust is not sufficiently maintained between Muslims and zakat centre,
the potential zakat payers would prefer to pay out zakat directly to their own relatives who are poor or
needy, rather than deal through the zakat centre. Issues such as zakat fund not fully distribute,
dissatisfaction from zakat payers and delaying the payment of zakat should be tackled immediately so that
the zakat centre can avoid the payment done by zakat payer through the unofficial channel or in other
word the zakat payer is paying zakat direct to the zakat recipients. Zakat administration, on the other
hand, should play an important role in monitoring the activities of the involved recipients besides
3
Malaysia Federal Territory Zakat Centre
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providing them with necessary skills, so that they can optimize the zakat funds channelled to them and
avoid unnecessary misspending.
On top of that, in terms of collection, a new and modern transaction approach to fund the collection
must be established such as such as Internet banking and other financial facilities. It requires a business
strategy where the zakat centre needs to have a corporate link with many financial institutions. To
accomplish the strategy, it appears that the zakat centre have to think beyond religion, treating the fund as
a type of secular taxation in which people must be persuaded rather than hoping they will willingly fulfil
their own obligation. The zakat disbursement has the ability to increase consumption since the marginal
propensity to consume of the zakat payer is lower than the zakat recipient, so that increasing the
purchasing power parity of the poor. The disbursement of zakat for income generation has also been
viewed as a strategic measure to solve the serious problems of poverty and unemployment in the majority
of Muslim countries. It is believed that the use of zakat funds for income generation programs can reduce
the poverty problem besides fostering sustainable economies. Most previous studies confirmed that the
utilization of zakat funds for income generating activities, such as setting up small and cottage industries
and providing necessary training for poor communities, will improve income and reduce the poverty rate.
Through this program, zakat funds can finance the economic activities of the eligible recipients based on
their skills and capabilities.
Lastly, the effectiveness of zakat in helping the poor is depends on the method of distribution and also
the purpose of it. This method however, needs to be strengthened and analysed from time to time so it
will serve the purpose to help the poor to have a better life. Often, there are various and interesting issues
occurred in zakat management, collection, distribution and poverty field which may gain interest from
researchers of Islamic scholar as well as economic researchers. This study not only explore in-depth for
those issues, but may also allow researchers to suggest solutions and produce new knowledge to solve
issues related to zakat.
Acknowledgement
Appreciation and thanks to Universiti Sains Islam Malaysia on university‟s grant: code
(PPP/FEM/IWM/30/14012) for the research titled: “Membangun Model Pelan Pembangunan Ekonomi
Dalam Membasmi Kemiskinan Di Kalangan Asnaf New Muslim (Muallaf) : Kajian Kes Di Negeri
Selangor”.
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