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Sparta and Thebes Crises in the Polis Thucydides 1.23 The greatest war in the past was the Persian War; yet in this war the decision was reached quickly as a result of two naval battles and two battles on land. The Peloponnesian War, on the other hand, not only lasted for a long time, but throughout its course brought with it unprecedented suffering for Greece. Never before had so many cities been captured and then devastated, whether by foreign armies or by the Greek powers themselves (some of these cities, after capture, were resettled with new inhabitants); never had there been so many exiles; never such loss of life—both in the actual warfare and in internal revolutions. Disintegrating Poleis: Cracks in the Classical World Anabasis: Xenophon and the March of the 10,000 Paymasters (Persian king, Jason of Pherae, Phocians) and Mercenaries Separation of Statesman and General Weakening Allegiance to the Polis Mercenary Commanders (Conon) and Light-Armed Troops (Peltasts) March of the Ten Thousand Lysander and Friendship of Cyrus the Younger Quarrel over Succession to Achaemenid Throne (Artaxerxes II and Cyrus) Artaxerxes II succeeds in 404 BCE Rebellion of Cyrus the Younger (13,000 Greek mercenaries) Battle of Cunaxa near Babylon (401 BCE); death of Cyrus Execution of Greek generals by Artaxerxes II Xenophon and the Anabasis (“march up country”) Greek Perceptions of Achaemenid Persia March of the Ten Thousand New Modes of Hoplite Warfare Greek Peltast Irresponsible Spartan Foreign Policy Agesilaus and Lessons of March of Ten Thousand Agesilaus’ “Trojan Expedition” of 396 BCE (Xenophon, Hellenica, 3.4.3-4): Boeotians block Agesilaus from sacrificing at Aulis Imperial Sparta: Administrative Choices in Asia Minor and the Aegean: Harmosts (Spartan overseers). Decarchies (pro-Spartan councils of 10); ephors dissolve them by 396 BCE (Xenophon, Hellenica 3.4.2) Corinthian War (395-387 BCE) Death of Lysander in early stages of war Athenian Conon defeats Spartans at Cnidus with Persian fleet (August, 394 BCE) Asia Minor Greeks prefer Persia! Pharnabazus (satrap), Persian fleet, and Conon’s leadership (Athens refortified with Persian subsidies) Athens, Thebes, Corinth, and Argos align against Sparta (with financial support of Persian king Artaxerxes II): Corinthian War King’s Peace (“Peace of Antialkidas”), spring, 386 BCE (Xenophon, Hellenica 5.1.31; cf. Thucydides 8.43.3-4, 58.2) Leagues of Greek poleis prohibited (Sparta) Asia Minor Greeks to the Persians Site of Battle at Cnidus: Athenian Commander Conon defeats Spartan fleet with Persian subsidy August, 394 BCE King’s Peace of 386 BCE Xenophon, Hellenica 5.1.31 King Artaxerxes thinks it just that the cities in Asia should belong to him, as well as Clazomenae and Cyprus among the islands, and that the other Greek cities, both small and great, should be left independent, except Lemnos, Imbros, and Scyros; and these should belong, as of old, to the Athenians. But whichever of the two parties does not accept this peace, upon them I shall make war, in company with those who desire this arrangement, both by land and by sea, with ships and with money. Spartan Abuses and Growing Greek Resistance Spartan Occupation of Kadmeia, Thebes (382 BCE), Phoebidas Spartan commander Thebes liberated with Athenian assistance (379 BCE) Spartan commander Sphodrias’ attack on Piraeus of Athens (378 BCE) Formation of Second Athenian League in 377 BCE “so that the Spartans may allow the Greeks to live in peace, free and autonomous, with all their territory secure.” (Decree of Aristoteles) Second Athenian League Proposed by Aristoteles in 377 BCE All allies “will remain independent and autonomous, enjoying the form of government they wish, admitting no garrisons or magistrates and paying no tribute.” No cleruchies (as in fifth-century Empire) League policy: Athenian assembly (ekklesia) and assembly of allies (synedrion) Syntaxeis (“contributions”) finance League operations Decree of Aristoteles 377 BCE: Constituting Second Athenian League Spartan Offenses and Threats to Spartan Hegemony (ca. 395-375 BCE) Corinthian War Harmosts and Decarchies Spartan Peace with Persia and Betrayal of Asia Minor Greeks Alienation of Athens and Thebes (“common peace,” or koinē eirēnē, signed in 375 BCE) Dissolution of the Boeotian League (Thebes) Thessaly and Jason of Pherae (tagos) Athenian generals Chabrias and Timotheus reconstitute Athenian naval power Summary: Period of Spartan Hegemony Disaffection of many Greek states Alienation of Athens and Thebes Thebes rising state in Greek world (issue of confederations) Reconstitution of Athenian naval power (Athens most powerful Greek state ca. 377-371 BCE) King’s Peace (Asia Minor Greeks; Greek leagues) and Persia as significant player in Greek interstate relations Peltasts and mercenaries Boeotia Theban Military Reforms Depth of Hoplite Phalanx (Fifty Men Deep on Left Wing) Slanting Attack by Left Wing Sacred Band (300 men; 150 homosexual pairs) Thebes after 380 BCE Intermittent Warfare between Sparta and Hostile Allies (Thebes and Athens) Spartans reject Theban claim to Boeotian Hegemony Principal Issue: Greek Federal States Theban Military Reform under Epaminondas and Pelopidas Battle at Leuctra (371 BCE) and the lukewarm reception at Athens Thebes’ Imperial Moment (360s BCE) Invasions of the Peloponnesus (370/369, 367, 364, 362, 361, and 352 BCE) Liberation of Messenia as a free and autonomous state (369 BCE) Arcadian League refounded as a counter to Spartan power in Peloponnesus (369 BCE); foundation of Megalopolis (369 BCE) Defeat of Spartans at Mantinea (362 BCE; cf. Xenophon, Hellenica, 7.5.27) Consolidation of Central and Northern Greece Athens after 380 BCE Defensive Alliance with Peloponnesian states in 370 BCE (Thebes or Sparta?) Reconstituted power in Aegean (Samos in 365 BCE, Chersonese from 365 BCE, much of Chalcidic peninsula in 364 BCE, Euboea in 357 BCE) Social War: Chios, Rhodes, Byzantium, Cos, aided by Mausolus of Caria (357/356 BCE) Concentration on Black Sea region (from 355 BCE) Instability in Fourth-Century Poleis: Athens Trierarchies and Liturgies (antidosis): reports of confiscations by state (390-387 BCE) Growing Disparity of Wealth and Euergetism Aristocratic Shirking of Liturgical Responsibilities (no vested interest in the Second Athenian League) Athens as Case Study of Fourth-Century Enervation of the Polis New Directions in Fourth-Century Greek Political Thinking Plato’s Statesman Isocrates’ Panegyricus Isocrates’ Letter to Philip Isocrates, Panegyricus 166 (380 BCE) So whenever we transport to Asia a force stronger than that of the Great King, which we can easily do if we choose, we shall enjoy in security the resources of all Asia. Moreover, it is much more glorious to fight against the King for his empire than to contend against each other for the hegemony.