Download Chapter 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 2. Chapter Overview This chapter

Chapter 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2. Chapter Overview
This chapter encompasses the related fields and knowledge pertaining that is
used for archiving the objective of the project. First topic is discussing about an
infrared sensor then move on to a motor selection topic and lastly the microcontroller
unit.
6
2.1. INFRARED SENSOR
2.1.1. Infrared Radiation
Infrared radiation exists in the electromagnetic spectrum at a wavelength that is
longer than visible light. Infrared radiation cannot be seen but it can be detected.
Objects that generate heat also generate infrared radiation and those objects include
animals and the human body whose radiation is strongest at a wavelength of 9.4µm.
2.1.2. PIR325 Infrared Pyroelectric Sensors
The pyroelectric sensor is made of a crystalline material that generates a surface
electric charge when exposed to heat in the form of infrared radiation. When the
amount of radiation striking the crystal changes, the amount of charge also changes
and can then be measured with a sensitive FET device built into the sensor. The
sensor elements are sensitive to radiation over a wide range so a filter window is
added to the TO5 package to limit incoming radiation to the 8 to 14µm range which
is most sensitive to human body radiation.
Figure 1: Typical Configuration
7
Figure 1 shows how typically, the FET source terminal pin 2 connects through a
pull-down resistor of about 100 K to ground and feeds into a two stage amplifier
having signal conditioning circuits. Each of the two cascaded stages has a gain of
100 for a total gain of about 10,000. The amplifier is typically bandwidth limited to
below 10Hz to reject high frequency noise and is followed by a window comparator
that responds to both the positive and negative transitions of the sensor output signal.
A well filtered power source of from 3 to 15 volts should be connected to the FET
drain terminal pin 1.
The PIR325 sensor has two sensing elements connected in a voltage bucking
configuration. This arrangement cancels signals caused by vibration, temperature
changes, and sunlight. A body passing in front of the sensor will activate first one
and then the other element as shown in figure 2 whereas other sources will affect
both elements simultaneously and be cancelled. The radiation source must pass
across the sensor in a horizontal direction when sensor pins 1 and 2 are on a
horizontal plane so that the elements are sequentially exposed to the IR source.
Figure 3 shows the PIR325 electrical specifications and layout in its TO5
package. Please note that the distance from the front of the sensing elements to the
front of the filter window is 0.045 inch (1.143mm). Figures 4 and 5 describe a
Fresnel lens designed to be used with the PIR325 sensor.
Figure 6 shows a typical application circuit that drives a relay. R10 and C6
adjust the amount of time that RY1 remains closed after motion is detected. When
used with a PIR325 sensor and FL65 Fresnel lens, this circuit can detect motion at a
distance of up to 90 feet. Figure 7 shows an application circuit that will indicate the
direction that an infrared radiating source is moving.
8
Figure 2: Object Detection
9
Figure 3: Specification and Dimensions:
10
2.1.3. Fresnel Lens
A Fresnel lens is a Plano Convex lens that has been collapsed on itself as in
figure 4 to form a flat lens that retains its optical characteristics but is much smaller
in thickness and therefore has less absorption losses.
Figure 4: Fresnel lens Shape
The FL65 Fresnel lens is made of an infrared transmitting material that has an IR
transmission range of 8 to 14 µm that is most sensitive to human body radiation. It is
designed to have its grooves facing the IR sensing element so that a smooth surface
is presented to the subject side of the lens which is usually the outside of an
enclosure that houses the sensor.
The lens element is round with a diameter of 1 inch and has a flange that is 1.5
inches square. This flange is used for mounting the lens in a suitable frame or
enclosure. Mounting can best and most easily be done with strips of Scotch tape.
Silicone rubber adhesive can also be used to form a more waterproof seal. The FL65
has a focal length of 0.65 inches from the lens to the sensing element. It has been
determined by experiment to have a field of view of approximately 10 degrees when
used with a PIR325 Pyroelectric sensor. Figure 5 shows the lens dimensions.
11
Figure 5: Fresnel lens Dimension and Specification
12
2.1.4. General purpose motion detector
This motion detector circuit uses a low cost LM324 quad operational amplifier
as both a two stage amplifier and a window comparator. Amplifiers IC1A and IC1B
have a gain of 100 each for a total of about 10,000.
IC1C and IC1D form a window comparator that responds to signals about 200
millivolts above and 200 millivolts below Vcc/2. This window is set by the low
current voltage drops across D1 and D2. Comparator outputs feed through D3 and
D4 that pass only the positive transitions into CD4538 CMOS single shot IC2 which
feeds into Q1 that drives relay RY1.
The R10 and C6 time constant determine how long the relay remains energized
after motion is detected. All components can operate on 5 to 12 volts. This type of
circuit is often used to turn a light on outside of a house when motion is detected.
Figure 6: Motion Detector
13
2.1.5. Direction sensing motion detector
This motion detector circuit will both detect motion and indicate the direction
that an infrared emitting body is moving. The amplifier and comparator circuits are
similar to those in figure 6. Potentiometer R10 is a sensitivity adjustment to vary the
detection range.
IC2 is a CD4538 dual single shot. The first single shot to receive a trigger input
from IC1C or IC1D will turn its output on to indicate the direction of detection and
will also inhibit the other single shot so that it cannot be triggered while the first
single shot is on. Potentiometer R15 adjusts the amount of time that an output
remains on after motion is detected.
This type of motion detector can be used to indicate people entering or leaving a
building or in some robotic applications.[4]
Figure 7: Direction Sensing
14
2.2. Motor Selections
Generally, there is three types of motor that robot builder used in their project.
These three types are servo motor, stepper motor and DC motor. All these types have
their own advantages and weaknesses. The type of motor chosen based on their
application in certain project. The cost and physical characteristic also be considered
before make any decision on which motor will be used.
2.2.1. DC Motor
Direct Current Motor or DC motor is the general motor that usually used in
many applications. Supplied with direct current voltage, DC motor make ease on any
application. There are many categories of DC motors, for example brushless motor,
coreless motor, fix magnet motor, 5-pole motor and servomotor.
DC motors generally have two wires, and can be powered directly from a battery
or other DC power supply. DC motor can also be powered through driver circuits
that can also regulate the speed and directions of the motor. The direction of the DC
motors rotation can be set controlling the polarity of the voltage supplied to the DC
motor.
In robot application, usually supply voltage for DC motor is 6V and 12V. The
current rating depends on the make of the robot but it is usually between 1A and 3A.
Varying the voltage input into the motor will vary the speed of the motor
accordingly. DC motors have the ability to turn at high revolution per minute but has
low torque. The most significant limitation of DC motors is the low output torque.
Although the output speed can be reduced and the torque increased by adding a gear
train to the output shaft it is still not adequate to actuate a biped robot using DC
motors.
For the purpose of robot building, DC motor is the cheapest compare to stepper
or servomotor. But it is hard to detect the rotation angle for this motor and some
external electronic circuit is needed to detect the rotation angle.
15
2.2.2. Stepper Motor
Stepper motor is not famous as other type of motor. Normally, all windings in
the motor are part of the stator, and the rotor is either a permanent magnet or, in the
case of variable reluctance motors, a toothed block of some magnetically soft
material. All of the commutation must be handled externally by the motor controller,
and typically, the controller is designed by the user so that the motor may be held in
any fixed position as well as being rotated one way or the other. Most stepping
motors can be stepped at audio frequencies, allowing them to spin quite quickly, and
with an appropriate controller, they may be started and stopped "on a dime" at
controlled orientations.
Stepper motor usually has four control wires and two power supply wire. A
sequence of signals is needed to feed into the motor via the four control wire in order
to driven the motor to move a single step. It is advisable to use a motor driver to
interface a stepper motor with the microcontroller as a motor driver makes
controlling a stepper motor easier.
For some applications, there is a choice between using servomotors and stepping
motors. Both type of motors offer similar opportunities for precise positioning, but
they differ in a number of ways. Servomotors require analogue feedback control
systems of some type. Typically, this involves a potentiometer to provide feedback
about the rotor position, and some mix of circuitry to drive a current through the
motor inversely proportional to the difference between the desired position and the
current position.
In making a choice between stepping motors and servomotors, a number of
issues must be considered; which of these will matter depends on the application. For
example, the repeatability of positioning done with a stepping motor depends on the
geometry of the motor rotor, while the repeatability of positioning done with a
servomotor generally depends on the stability of the potentiometer and other
analogue components in the feedback circuit.
16
Stepping motors can be used in simple open-loop control systems; these are
generally adequate for systems that operate at low accelerations with static loads, but
closed loop control may be essential for high accelerations, particularly if they
involve variable loads. If a stepping motor in an open-loop control system is over
torque, all knowledge of rotor position is lost and the system must be reinitialized.
The weight of stepper motor is heavier than servo motor. The stepper motor also has
lower torque compared to servo motor and is typically more expensive.
2.2.3. Servo Motor
There are actually two types of servomotors available. The first type is for
industrial use which is much heavier and powerful but expensive. This type of servo
generally used in building bigger robot. The second type is called the pager type.
This pager type named because it looks like a pager. Pager type servomotor, or
simply called a servo motor are used widely in building small robots.
Servo motor first developed for use in radio controlled car, aircraft and sailboat.
Today, servo motors are adapted in building a small robot. We can find dozens of
servo motor used in robots in building arms, legs, grippers and sensor platforms.
Servo motor is used in almost anywhere that needs repeatable position control.
Major servo manufacturers are Futaba, Hitec, Sanwa, JR, Airtronics and
Hobicco. Servo motors generally have three wires, one for controlling the motor and
the other two is the power supply. Servomotor can be powered directly from a
battery or other DC supply. Servo motors receive an input signal in the form of a
Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) signal, and then turn their output shaft to the
position indicated by the signal.
Usually, the maximum rotation angle for servo motor is 90 or 180 degrees
depends on the motor's specifications and manufacturing. Servomotors typically
weight more or less 50 gram, and there is servo motor weighted around 100 gram,
depending on the servo's architecture.
17
A servomotor comes in a cartridge type casing usually with 20mm x 40mm x
35mm dimension. Inside this cartridge casing is a DC motor, a set of gears,
potentiometer and a control circuit. The output shaft of the DC motor is attached to a
set of gears and a potentiometer. The potentiometer is used to determine the exact
position of the servo motor's output shaft. The control circuit used to control the
output of the DC motor according to input signal from the potentiometer and from
the control wire.
The nature of the servo motor, wide selection of torque, low weight, cartridge
type casing, precise positioning of the servo and robust, make it an obvious choice
for the biped robot. The limitations of servomotors are its price which is a bit
expensive and that most of the model can't be obtained in Malaysia.
There is a new type of servomotor available at the market. It is the digital
servomotor. Basically the physical characteristic of the digital servo is pretty much
the same as conventional analogue servo. The difference is that the digital servo
motor has faster response time and consumes more power. It is not practicable to use
a digital servomotor in this project because of the fast response, high power needed
and it is more expensive.
18
2.2.4. Servo Motor Control
The servo motor has a control circuits and a potentiometer that is connected to
the output shaft. This potentiometer allows the control circuitry to monitor the
current rotation angle of the output shaft. If the shaft is at the correct angle, then the
motor will be shuts off. If the circuit finds that the angle is not correct, it will turn the
motor to the correct direction until the angle is correct.
The output shaft of the servo is capable of travelling somewhere around 180
degrees. Usually, it’s somewhere in the 210 degree range, but it varies by
manufacturer and model. A normal servo is used to control an angular motion of
between 0 and 180 degrees. A normal servo is mechanically not capable of turning
any farther due to a mechanical stop built on to the main output gear.
The amount of power applied to the motor is proportional to the distance it needs
to travel. So, if the shaft needs to turn a large distance, the motor will run at full
speed. If it needs to turn only a small amount, the motor will run at a slower speed.
This is called proportional control. The control wire is used to communicate the
angle of turning of the servomotor.
19
Figure 8: A Pulse Width Modulation to control servo motor
The angle is determined by the duration of a pulse that is applied to the control
wire. This is called Pulse Width Modulation. The servo expects to see a pulse every
20 milliseconds. The length of the pulse will determine how far the motor turns. For
example, 1.5 millisecond pulses will make the motor turn to the 90 degree position
called the neutral position. If the pulse is shorter than 1.5 ms, then the motor will turn
the shaft to closer to 0 degrees. If the pulse is longer than 1.5ms, the shaft turns
closer to 180 degrees. The pulse width modulation used to control the servomotor
varies between manufacturers. Nevertheless, the controlling method for all
servomotors is the same; just the value of the pulse varies.
20
2.3. Microcontroller
Figure 9: M68HC11 E-Series Block Diagram
The microcontroller 68HC11 family from Motorola will be used in this project.
This microcontroller has been used widely in many applications as a control unit
system. The 68HC11 family is an advance 8 bit microcontroller with significant
ability and internal peripheral.
2.3.1. Introduction
21
The microcontroller M68HC11 family from Motorola are its using M68HC11
CPU for data processing. Microcontroller from Motorola also have power saving
criteria that are STOP and WAIT modes and a low-voltages devices also available
from 3.0-5.5 Vdc and 2.7-5.5 Vdc.
For the memory, they have Random Access Memory in 256, 512, or 768 Bytes
of On-Chip RAM and the data detained during standby. Read Only Memory in 12, or
20 Kbytes of On-Chip ROM or EPROM and 512, or 2048 Bytes of On-Chip
EEPROM with block protect for security and also 2048 bytes of EEPROM with
selectable base address in MC68HC811E2.
For the communication, there are asynchronous Non return to Zero (NRZ) Serial
Communications Interface (SCI) and additional baud rates available on MC68HC
(7)11E20 and also synchronous Serial Peripheral Interface (SPI).
Other peripherals are 8-Channel 8-Bit Analogue-to-Digital (A/D) Converter, 16Bit Timer System, three Input Capture (IC) Channels, four Output Compare (OC)
Channels and one additional channel, selectable as fourth Input Capture or fifth
Output Compare , 8-Bit Pulse Accumulator, Real-Time Interrupt Circuit, Computer
Operating Properly (COP) supporting a Watchdog System.
In generally its have 38 General-Purpose Input/Output (I/O) Pins, 16
Bidirectional I/O Pins, 11 Input-Only Pins, 11 Output-Only Pins. There are also
several packaging options that are 52-Pin Plastic Leaded Chip Carrier (PLCC), 52Pin Windowed Ceramic Leaded Chip Carrier (CLCC), 52-Pin Plastic Thin Quad Flat
Pack, 10 mm X 10 mm (TQFP), 64-Pin Plastic Quad Flat Pack (QFP), 48-Pin
Plastic Dual In-Line Package (DIP), 56-Pin Plastic Dual In-Line Package, .070" Lead
Spacing (SDIP).
The 68HC11 family had a lot of microcontroller type and for this project; the
microcontroller 68HC11E1 with 48- pin DIP is selected.
22
Figure 10: Pin Assignments for 48-Pin DIP (MC68HC811E2
There are many advantages in using microcontroller for this project rather than
using microprocessor. The microcontroller acts like microcomputer because all of
basic component for microprocessor such as EEPROM, ROM, RAM, and analogue
digital converter are already embedded in this system.
23
2.3.2. VDD and VSS
Power is supplied to the microcontroller unit through pin VDD and VSS. VDD
is the power supply, VSS is ground. The microcontroller unit operates from a single
5-volt (nominal) power supply. Low-voltage devices in the E series operate at either
3.0 – 5.5 volts or 2.7 – 5.5 volts. Very fast signal transitions occur on the
microcontroller unit pins. The short rise and fall times place high, short duration
current demands on the power supply.
To prevent noise problems, provide good power supply bypassing at the
microcontroller unit. Also, use bypass capacitors that have good high-frequency
characteristics and situate them as close to the microcontroller unit as possible.
Bypass requirements vary, depending on how heavily the microcontroller unit pins
are loaded.
2.3.3. RESET
A bidirectional control signal RESET acts as an input to initialize the
microcontroller unit to a known start-up state. It also acts as an open-drain output to
indicate that an internal failure has been detected in either the clock monitor or COP
watchdog circuit. The CPU distinguishes between internal and external reset
conditions by sensing whether the reset pin rises to a logic one in less than two Eclock cycles after a reset has occurred. Do not connect an external resistor capacitor
(RC) power-up delay circuit to the reset pin of M68HC11 devices because the circuit
charge time constant can cause the device to misinterpret the type of reset that
occurred.
24
Figure 11: External Reset Circuit
.
2.3.4. Crystal Driver and External Clock Input (XTAL and EXTAL)
Crystal Driver and External Clock Input (XTAL, EXTAL) provide the interface
for either a crystal or a CMOS compatible clock to control the internal clock
generator circuitry. The frequency applied to these pins is four times higher than the
desired E-clock rate. The XTAL pin is normally left unterminated when an external
CMOS compatible clock input is connected to the EXTAL pin. However, a 10 kW to
100 kW load resistor connected from XTAL to ground can be used to reduce RFI
noise emission. The XTAL output is normally intended to drive only a crystal. The
XTAL output can be buffered with a high-impedance buffer, or it can be used to
drive the EXTAL input of another M68HC11 microcontroller unit.
25
Figure 12: Common Crystal Connection
Figure 13: External Oscillator Connections
Figure 14: One Crystal Driving Two Microcontroller’s
26
2.3.5. E-Clock Output (E)
E-Clock Output (E) is the output connection for the internally generated E clock.
The signal from E is used as a timing reference. The frequency of the E-clock output
is one fourth that of the input frequency at the XTAL and EXTAL pins. When Eclock output is low, an internal process is taking place. When it is high, data is being
accessed. All clocks, including the E clock, are halted when the microcontroller unit
is in STOP mode. To reduce RFI emissions, the E-clock output of most E-series
devices can be disabled while operating in single-chip modes. The E clock signal is
always enabled on the MC68HC811E2.
2.3.6. Interrupt Request (IRQ)
Interrupt Request (IRQ) input provides a means of applying asynchronous
interrupt requests to the microcontroller unit. Either negative edge-sensitive
triggering or level-sensitive triggering is program selectable (OPTION register). IRQ
is always configured to level-sensitive triggering at reset. When using IRQ in a levelsensitive wired-OR configuration, connect an external pull-up resistor, typically 4.7
kW, to VDD.
2.3.7. Non-Maskable Interrupt (XIRQ/VPPE)
Non-Maskable Interrupt (XIRQ/VPPE) input provides a means of requesting a
non-maskable interrupt after reset initialization. During reset, the X bit in the
condition code register (CCR) is set and any interrupt is masked until microcontroller
unit software enables it. Because the XIRQ input is level sensitive, it can be
connected to a multiple-source wired-OR network with an external pull-up resistor to
VDD. XIRQ is often used as power losses detect interrupt.
Whenever XIRQ or IRQ are used with multiple interrupt sources (IRQ must be
configured for level-sensitive operation if there is more than one source of IRQ
interrupt), each source must drive the interrupt input with an open-drain type of
driver to avoid contention between outputs. There should be a single pull-up resistor
near the microcontroller unit interrupt input pin (typically 4.7 kW). There must also
27
be an interlock mechanism at each interrupt source so that the source holds the
interrupt line low until the microcontroller unit recognizes and acknowledges the
interrupt request.
If one or more interrupt sources are still pending after the microcontroller unit
services a request, the interrupt line will still be held low and the microcontroller unit
will be interrupted again as soon as the interrupt mask bit in the microcontroller unit
is cleared (normally upon return from an interrupt). VPPE is the input for the 12 volt
nominal programming voltage required for EPROM/OTPROM programming. On
devices without EPROM/OTPROM this pin is only XIRQ input.
2.3.8. MODA and MODB (MODA/LIR and MODB/VSTBY)
During reset, MODA and MODB (MODA/LIR and MODB/VSTBY) select one
of the four operating modes;
● Single-chip mode
● Expanded mode
● Test mode
● Bootstrap mo
After the operating mode has been selected, the load instruction register (LIR)
pin provides an open-drain output to indicate that execution of an instruction has
begun. A series of E-clock cycles occurs during execution of each instruction. The
LIR signal goes low during the first E-clock cycle of each instruction (Opcode fetch).
This output is provided for assistance in program debugging.
The VSTBY pin is used to input RAM standby power. When the voltage on this
pin is more than one MOS threshold (about 0.7 volts) above the VDD voltage, the
internal RAM and part of the reset logic are powered from this signal rather than the
VDD input. This allows RAM contents to be retained without VDD power applied to
the microcontroller unit. Reset must be driven low before VDD is removed and must
remain low until VDD has been restored to a valid level.
28
2.3.9. VRL and VRH
VRL and VRH inputs provide the reference voltages for the analog-to-digital
converter circuitry. VRL is the low reference, typically 0 Vdc. VRH is the high
reference. For proper A/D converter operation, VRH should be at least 3 Vdc greater
than VRL, and both VRL and VRH should be between VSS and VDD.
2.3.10. STRA/AS
STRA/AS pin performs either of two separate functions, depending on the
operating mode. In single-chip mode, STRA performs an input handshake (strobe
input) function. In the expanded multiplexed mode, AS provides an address strobe
function and can be used to demultiplex the address and data signals at port C.
2.3.11. STRB/R/W
The strobe B (STRB) and read/write (R/W) pin acts as either an output strobe, or
as a data bus direction indicator, depending on the operating mode. In single-chip
operating mode, STRB acts as a programmable strobe for handshake with other
parallel devices.
In expanded multiplexed operating mode, R/W is used to indicate the direction
of transfers on the external data bus. A low on the R/W pin indicates data is being
written to the external data bus. A high on this pin indicates that a read cycle is in
progress. R/W stays low during consecutive data bus write cycles, such as a doublebyte store. It is possible for data to be driven out port C, if internal read visibility is
enabled and an internal address is read, even though R/W is in a high-impedance
state
29
Table 1: Port Signal Functions
30
2.3.12. Port Signals
Port pins have different functions in different operating modes. Pin functions for
port A, port D, and port E are independent of operating modes. Port B and port C,
however, are affected by operating mode. Port B provides eight general-purpose
output signals in single-chip operating modes. When the microcontroller is in
expanded multiplexed operating mode, port B pins are the eight high-order address
lines.
Port C provides eight general-purpose input/output signals when the
microcontroller unit is in the single-chip operating mode. When the microcontroller
is in the expanded multiplexed operating mode, port C pins are a multiplexed
address/data bus.
2.3.12.1.
Port A
In all operating modes, port A can be configured for three timer input capture
(IC) functions and four timer output compare (OC) functions. An additional pin can
be configured as either the fourth IC or the fifth OC. Any port A pin that is not
currently being used for a timer function can be used as either a general-purpose
input or output line.
Only port A pins PA7 and PA3 have an associated data direction control bit that
allows the pin to be selectively configured as input or output. Bits DDRA7 and
DDRA3 located in PACTL register control data direction for PA7 and PA3,
respectively. All other port A pins are fixed as either input or output. PA7 can
function as general-purpose I/O or as timer output compare for OC1. PA7 is also the
input to the pulse accumulator, even while functioning as a general-purpose I/O or an
OC1 output.
PA6–PA4 serves as either general-purpose output, timer input captures, or timer
output compare 2–4. In addition, PA6–PA4 can be controlled by OC1. PA3 can be a
general-purpose I/O pin or a timer IC/OC pin. Timer functions associated with this
pin include OC1 and IC4/OC5. IC4/OC5 is software selectable as either a fourth
31
input capture or a fifth output compare. PA3 can also be configured to allow OC1
edges to trigger IC4 captures.
PA2–PA0 serves as general-purpose inputs or as IC1–IC3. PORTA can be read
at any time. Reads of pins configured as inputs return the logic level present on the
pin. Pins configured as outputs return the logic level present at the pin driver input. If
written, PORTA stores the data in an internal latch, bits 7 and 3. It drives the pins
only if they are configured as outputs. Writes to PORTA do not change the pin state
when pins are configured for timer input captures or output compares.
2.3.12.2.
Port B
During single-chip operating modes, all port B pins are general-purpose output pins.
During microcontroller unit reads of this port, the level sensed at the input side of the
port B output drivers is read. Port B can also be used in simple strobe output mode.
In this mode, an output pulse appears at the STRB signal each time data is written to
port B. In expanded multiplexed operating modes, the entire port B pins act as high
order addresses output signals. During each microcontroller unit cycle, bits 15–8 of
the address bus are output on the PB7–PB0 pins. The PORTB register is treated as an
external address in expanded modes.
2.3.12.3.
Port C
While in single-chip operating modes, all port C pins are general-purpose I/O pins.
Port C inputs can be latched into an alternate PORTCL register by providing an input
transition to the STRA signal. Port C can also be used in full handshake modes of
parallel I/O where the STRA input and STRB output act as handshake control lines.
When in expanded multiplexed modes, all port C pins are configured as multiplexed
address/data signals. During the address portion of each microcontroller unit cycle,
bits 7–0 of the address are output on the PC7–PC0 pins. During the data portion of
each microcontroller unit cycle (E high), PC7–PC0 are bidirectional data signals,
DATA7–DATA0. The direction of data at the port C pins is indicated by the R/W
signal. The CWOM control bit in the PIOC register disables the port C P-channel
output driver. CWOM simultaneously affects all eight bits of port C. Because the N-
32
channel driver is not affected by CWOM, setting CWOM causes port C to become an
open-drain type output port suitable for wired-OR operation.
In wired-OR mode; when a port C bit is at logic level 0, it is driven low by the Nchannel driver. When a port C bit is at logic level 1, the associated pin has highimpedance, as neither the N-channel nor the P-channel devices are active.
It is customary to have an external pull-up resistor on lines that are driven by opendrain devices. Port C can only be configured for wired-OR operation when the
microcontroller unit is in single-chip mode.
2.3.12.4.
Port D
Pins PD5–PD0 can be used for general-purpose I/O signals. These pins alternately
serve as the serial communication interface (SCI) and serial peripheral interface
(SPI) signals when those subsystems are enabled.
● PD0 is the receive data input (RxD) signal for the SCI.
● PD1 is the transmit data output (TxD) signal for the SCI.
● PD5–PD2 are dedicated to the SPI:
● PD2 is the master in/slave out (MISO) signal.
● PD3 is the master out/slave in (MOSI) signal.
● PD4 is the serial clock (SCK) signal.
● PD5 is the slave select (SS) input.
33
2.3.12.5.
Port E
Use port E for general-purpose or analog-to-digital (A/D) inputs.Port E is used
as an input port. The sensors can be connected to this port as input for feedback
controls. [1]
Chapter 3
Theory and background
3. Chapter Overview
This chapter include comprehensively some idea that is collected from references.
The discussion will goes more details for some related topic in the chapter two which is
corresponds as theory and background for this project.
35
3.1. Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
Pulse-width modulation uses square waves generated by microcontrollers to control
voltage across a circuit. Square waves alternate between a high-logic (binary 1) level and
a low logic (binary 0) level, where high logic has a positive voltage and low logic has
zero voltage. Figure 9 is an example. Notice that, here the square wave alternates
between 5V and 0V.
Also notice that the square waves spend a value of time Δt on both high and low
logic, this time is called a delay. In order to change the delay time, a certain number are
input into a microprocessor program that will force the wave to remain at the high or low
logic level until it switches to the opposite level. However, changing this delay time does
not achieve what we want to achieve; essentially, the point of pulse width modulation is
to achieve a different average voltage for the signal. That is to say, changing the delay
time maintains the high-logic voltage while keeping factors associated with lower
voltages, such as lower torque, lower angular velocity, constant.
Instead of varying the time between high-logic peaks, pulse-width modulation varies
the ratio between high- and low-logic times per cycle. This cycle is called duty cycle. For
the square wave, in Figure 9 the ratio of high- and low- logic is one. However, the ratio
may change when the high or low logic changes.
36
Figure 15: The Typical Square Wave
What happens if we change this ratio? If we keep the duty cycle constant, but cut
down the high logic to half ( also can be called half period), then the ratio of high to low
logic is one-to-two. If the output voltage is a function of the averaging of high and low
logic, it can be seen that the low-logic voltage has more influence on the output voltage.
This is how pulse-width modulation works. PWM uses a variable, the high-to-logic logic
delay ratio to control the voltage in a circuit.
Half Period =
1
2 xfrequency
From this theory, the PWM signal is generated using programmable timer
function that had been offered in M68HC11E family microcontroller unit. Then the
controlled outputs are put through output compare pins into servo motor.[2]
37
3.2. Stand & Mechanical Structure
Structure for holding the video camera and selecting their material is very importing
because this component will used to place all the servo motors that driven all joint for the
movement system. The controlling circuit are placed on the stand. The mechanical design
for the Video camera frame will determine the stability and centre of focusing in static
position or when in the movement process.
There are many type of material that can be use. Table below show some of material
that can easily found and each type of these materials has their own advantages and
disadvantages. For this project, aluminium bar are selected as the frame material for
video camera. This type of material gives a lot of advantages, light in weight, strong
architecture and heat and impact resistant. There is also disadvantage in using this
material, not flexible for model building. This because it needs a certain kind of tool to
cut, bending and combine it.
All circuit involved this project are placed around the stand, so it is more appropriate
to use a flexible item such as plastic. For stand design it will be wider for lower gravity
point to support mechanical movement speed with the weight of video camera and servo
motor.
38
Balsa Wood
Plastic
Ion Bar
Aluminium Bar
Lightest
Light
Heavy
Light
Strong
Strong
Not too strong
Stronger than Balsa
Wood
Sensitive to heat
Sensitive to heat
Heat resistant
Heat resistant
Sensitive to impact
Sensitive to impact
Impact resistant
Impact resistant
Flexible for model Flexible for model Not
building
building
flexible
model building
for Not
flexible
model building
Table 2: Comparison of the quality and characteristic of different
for
Chapter 4
Methodology
4. Chapter Overview
This chapter encompasses all related plan, design, and procedure that used for
completing this project. Early in this chapter will discuss about project development,
process model, requirement and design involve from beginning until end of the project.
Result of the project will discuss in the next chapter.
40
4.1. Project Development
A simple project can be done without engineering but not a complex project that is
needs for details notation and a long period of time. Engineering is to work
systematically. This project is developing with all of engineering knowledge learned in
University of Technology Malaysia. The project planning is the first step taken in this
project early in the first phase of this project (PSM1).
In the earliest of the project development, first thing to do is to meet with supervisor
and discussing on what are this project all about, how should it’s carry on and what kind
of project related and appropriate to be develop. Then the project should be decided by
considering a project that had never been developed and reviewed problem statements
from a brain storming technique used.
Then a proposal given to supervisor base on problem statements detailed with
objectives, scope to be cover and final result expectation. This project is controlled by
supervisor, so supervisor approval is needed to continue project development. If the
project does not get approved then the expectation from supervisor shall be review from
the last discussion. Then another proposal proposes until meet the supervisor expectation.
Next is to research on project related topic, the fastest method is by using an internet.
All literature study and references is searched base on the scopes of the project. Then
project planning made base on time given for completing this project. It including
literature study, purchasing mechanical and electronic components, study and construct
the mechanical and the electronic part, test, analyze and troubleshoot the overall modules.
At the end of phase one of the project, demo a given in front of panels that is
faculties lecturer. If the project meets panels’ expectation then move on the next step of
the project development and without panels’ approval the project development must go
back into the earliest of project development that is discussing with supervisor then make
a new proposal.
41
After demoed, the next step is design phase. First design is about electronic circuit
for microcontroller unit. Basic circuit designs for microcontroller can be easily gets from
any references related. The next design is about sensor circuit that had been referred to
the manual of the component part. The designs then discussed with supervisor assistant.
For the mechanical design, it’s has been referred to some of robotic over an internet and
the idea came up.
A full report on the first phase of this project submitted to supervisor detailed in
objectives, scopes, problem statement, planning, and project acquisition.
In the second phase of the project development, the mechanical parts constructed and
electronic circuit fabricated. The functional test made after the hardware part finished.
Then a program created in a lot of tries and errors process in a assembly language for
Motorola microcontrollers.
Then develop to hardware and program finalization where tests and troubleshoots are
been done numerous of times. Then a final demo in front of the faculties panels and if
ever a problem occurs a re-demo may be required depends on panel’s decision. Then a
final report submitted to supervisor then follow up to this thesis report.
42
Start
Meeting with supervisor
Searching for topic
Proposal
Not Accepted
Literature study and research
on topic
Demo 1
Not Accepted
Circuit Design
Mechanical design
PSM 1 report
Hardware Construction
Assembly Programming
Hardware and Programming
Finalization
Demo 2
Not Accepted
PSM 2 report
End
Figure 16: The Flow Chart for Project
43
4.2. Process Model
Here is the procedure used for design and fabricate the output of this project. The
easiest way to resemble the project scheme is by using the waterfall model which is often
used in software engineering method. The process is simple top-down solution.
● Design electronic circuit for microcontroller M68HC11E1 (power supply, clock,
reset).
● Design Serial Communication circuit for M68HC11E1.
● Design electronic circuit for sensors.
● Get components part for all, assemble, and fabricate all the electronic circuit.
● Test all electronic circuit and update the changes.
● Design and construct mechanical part
● Combine all electronic circuit with mechanical part.
● Install and program the microcontroller.
● Test and troubleshoot the overall system.
● Combine both systems, test and troubleshoot overall system.
Vertical Stepper Motors
Vertical IR
µC
M68HC11
Horizontal Stepper Motors
Horizontal IR
Infrared Sensors (IR)
MAX232
(For Serial Communication Interface)
Figure 17: Project Block Diagram
44
4.3. Project Requirements
Software Requirement
● THRSim11 4.00
● HCLOAD 6.0
Hardware’s and Tools requirement
● Solder set
● Multimeter
● Wire Cutter
● ‘Adapter’ with decription of 3.5mm DC Jack Plug (‘male’ ) or Bateri 9V
● Computer
● Video Camera/ Video Cam
Component Requirement
● Refer to appendix
45
4.4. Project Design
Project design is about three main component designs of this project that is
microcontroller unit, sensor and the mechanical part. The design phase begin after
completed the literature study.
4.4.1. Microcontroller Circuit Design
The design for microcontroller is very easy because the basis it is already covered in
study syllabus and there are a lot of references. There are three importance circuit needed
to use microcontroller. Here will be discussed the basis design and complete the
microcontroller design.
All kind of electric or electronic product definitely would not work without power.
So this is the most important circuit. Power supply circuit design is very simple by using
an adapter with 9-18 voltage and 1.0 ampere of current and connected with a jack plug.
1.0 ampere is quite big but it is needed to power up all circuit involves and 2 servo
motors. From the female jack plug power is put through IC LM7805 to stabilize output
voltage at 5 volt then it will be connected to all circuit and servos. The power supply
circuit is shown in figure XXXXX.
LM7805
1
Input DC
9v~18v
100µf
3
2
Output DC 5v
10µf
Figure 18: Power Supply Schematic design
46
Second design is clock circuit that absolutely necessary for all kind of
microcontroller to work properly. Fundamentally, the program for microcontroller run
and generated signal synchronize with the clock. The process speed in a microcontroller
also depend on how fast the clock itself. Synchronizing program and clock shall ease
programmer to control the behavioural of program and also the behavioural of hardware.
The external clock is generated with 8 MHz crystal. The schematic design is shown in
figure XX.
1 MO
8 Mhz
27pf
27pf
Figure 19: Schematic Design for Clock circuit.
47
Third design is reset circuit that is also essential for microcontroller. This circuit will
support the reset function of microcontroller and make sure there is no feedback or any
distortion when reset button pushed. The reset can simply implement with pull-up resistor
and a tack switch. In order to make sure it is really stable an IC specializes for resetting
need. In this project, IC MC364064 is used for reset circuit. Figure XXX show the
schematic design for reset circuit.
Vcc
4.7kO
3
Reset
1
MC34064
Tact Switch
2
Figure 20: Reset Schematic Design
Last design associated with microcontroller is serial communication interface (SCI)
circuit. The design is build base on microcontroller course taken in faculty of electric
however the schematic design shown in figure 21 the overall of microcontroller unit
schematic design that has been modified from www.myrosyl.com .[3]
Figure 21: Microcontroller Unit Schematic design
48
49
4.4.2. Pyroelectric Sensor Circuit design
The pyroelectric sensor circuit are built on reference from the literature review and
originally from infrared part manual. The original circuit are analyzed and tested for
many time and failed. The pyroelectric sensor circuit then has been rebuilt, redesign,
analyzed and tested for another three time, however it still not very stable but able to
work properly and right in the scope of the project and in overall it meet the need to
accomplish the objective of this project.
In the preliminary result of this project, the first pyroelectric sensor circuit built are
unstable and the outputs are not as expected. It could be hardware errors, however it still
using unnecessary component. Some component such as IC CD4538 dual single shot and
others minor component supporter like NMOS transistors and diodes can be remove.
The second pyroelectric sensor circuit is a modified circuit from the original by
removing IC CD4538 dual single shot and another supporter component. The output for
this pyroelectric sensor circuit is implemented with pull-up resistor to make an active low
input for the microcontroller. An active low circuit is more stable to implement in
hardware.
Outputs from second pyroelectric sensor circuit then connected with microcontroller,
servo motor and oscilloscope for analyzing and testing. The waveform readings at the
oscilloscope from both outputs pin of pyroelectric sensor circuit show some unwanted
signal that can be the source of instability for this sensor. However the pyroelectric sensor
still can control the servo motor when testing with hand movement in front of the sensors
for a few minutes.
Figure 22: Sensor Schematic Design
50
Figure 23: Second Pyroelectric Sensor Schematic Design
51
52
The third pyroelectric sensor circuit is an alternative circuit. This circuit originally
from the internet and the author claimed it is work perfectly. His circuit design is used in
hope it could help improve my circuit design. After finish building the circuit, it is tested
and analyzed. The outputs are decided not suitable for direction sensing motion detector
of this project. The reason is it hard to understand the circuit behavioural and it output
does not match the needs of this project and more suitable for movement motion
detection.
The last circuit design is a combination of two second pyroelectric sensor circuit.
One of the pyroelectric sensor circuits is used to sense horizontal motion movement and
another is for sensing vertical motion movement. So the last circuit design will cover all
kind of object position and make both servo motors movement maximize. This will help
the project camera stand move very flexible.
53
Figure 24: Finalize Pyroelectric Sensor Schematic Design
54
4.4.3. Mechanical Design
Mechanical design is consist of positioning servo motor and joint forming a strong
and simple stand for video camera. This design will make the stand move the mounted
video camera in horizontal movement and vertical movement. Both movement in
horizontal and vertical when combined shall make the mounted video camera on the
stand act like a human eye because it will cover all view in front of it and however it
would not be as flexible as human neck.
Why the design is said simple? Maybe it would be very simple instead of simple
because it only needs two U shapes and one base. The two U shapes are consist of a small
U shape size of aluminium and a medium U shape size of aluminium that wide enough to
support a video camera. It is strong enough because they are made of aluminium.
Video Camera
Sensors
Servo Motors
Main Circuit Boards
Stand
Figure 25: Hardware Design
55
The base is made of plastic that strong enough to support the weight of medium size
of video camera and the mechanical parts. Plastic materials are chosen instead of stronger
materials to ease testing and analyzing process. The plastic base is not only for supporting
video camera and the mechanical parts but also all electronic circuit involve in this
project. The base has a cap that can be easily remove and install to reach an electronic
circuit that required a special setting like pyroelectric sensor circuit.
Chapter 5
RESULTS
5. Chapter Overview
This chapter is about the final results for this project. The actual results cannot be
shown here in this chapter since it’s’ was a hardware mechanical movement. However
this chapter will views thoroughly results of this project and the project details have been
discussed in the previous chapter.
57
5.1. Hardware Part
The hardware part is consisting of electronic circuits, and stand and mechanical
structure for this project. Results are shown in figures.
5.1.1. Electronic Circuits
There are only two main electronic circuits in that is microcontroller circuit and
electronic circuit is sensor circuit.
5.1.1.1.
Microcontroller Circuit
Servo Motor
Pins
Serial
Communication
Interface
Microcontroller unit
Reset
Voltage
Regulator
Tack Switches
Clock
Figure 26: Microcontroller Circuit
Figure 26 show microcontroller consist of reset circuit, clock circuit, SCI circuit also
added some tack switches for testing procedure.
58
5.1.1.2.
Sensor circuit
Horizontal Signal
Voltage
Regulator
Vertical Signal
Wires connected to sensors
Quad-amplifier
Figure 27: Sensor Circuit
Figure 28: Sensors
Figure 27 show sensor circuit while figure 28 show sensors. Sensors are split from
the sensor circuit to ease mounting on mechanical structure.
59
5.1.2. Stand and Mechanical Structure
U shape aluminium
Servo motor
Base stand
Figure 29: Mechanical Structure
Stand and the mechanical structure are made simple and tough enough to support
sensors and CCTV video camera.
60
5.1.3. Overall Hardware Part
CCTV video camera
Horizontal sensor
Vertical sensor
Figure 30: Embedded Video Camera Movement Controller System
Figure 29 show a complete hardware part. As seeing in the figure, sensors are
mounting directly so range for motion direction movement is about three feet. It is
limited, but enough to functional.
61
5.2. Program Part
The hardware part works correctly as expected when programmed. The program
source code can be view in the appendix A. the program is quite simple consist of
initializing value, simple control method, subroutine, and timer operation using output
compare and setting output compare interrupt.
Chapter 6
Discussion, Suggestion, and Conclusion
6. Chapter Overview
This chapter content of discussion, suggestion, and conclusion of the project. The
discussion is discussing about results and a related topic in achieving the objective of the
project. Suggestion is about a new implementation or idea that can be done to improve
project quality. The conclusion will summarize overall of thesis content.
63
6.1. Discussion
This project has three major components that are briefly discuss in the scope of the
project in the chapter one. The project blocks diagram also shown these components in
figure 17 in the chapter 4. These three main components are controller part, mechanical
part, sensor part.
Last component is the controller part which is using M68HC11E1 the Motorola
microcontroller. This microcontroller has been used widely in many applications as a
control unit system .This microcontroller unit is selected by considering basis knowledge
that already learned. The M68HC11 is an advance 8 bit microcontroller with significant
ability and internal peripheral.
There are many advantages in using microcontroller for this project rather than using
microprocessor. The microcontroller acts like microcomputer because all of basic
component for microprocessor such as EEPROM, ROM, RAM, and analogue digital
converter are already embedded in this system.
There are five ports in the microcontroller namely Port A, Port B, Port C, Port D and
Port E. Normally, not all ports are used to a certain project. Each port has different
function. Port B is used as an output port, for example, to send pulse width modulation
signal to the servomotors. Port E is used as an input port. The sensors can be connected to
this port as input for feedback controls. Port C and Port D are different with previous
ports. Both ports can be set as an input or output.
This microcontroller also has Serial Communication Interface (SCI), Serial
Peripheral Interface (SPI) and also has 8 channel 8-bit analogue digital converters.
Moreover, output capture and input capture system also included.
For controlling aspect, the value controlled is PWM signals base on sensors signals.
Inputs for microcontroller unit are put through Port E that is a one directional type data
64
for inputs only. Port E for M68HC11E1 only has 4 pins and all connected to 4 signal
output from sensor circuit. PE0 is connected to LEFT signal, PE1 is connected to RIGHT
signal, PE2 is connected to DOWN signal, and PE3 is connected to UP signal. While the
outputs are using Port A and connected to Output Compare pins which is OC4 connected
to servo motor for vertical movement and OC5 connected to servo motor for horizontal
movement.
The control processes are when object detected in the range then the object position
is decided by which direction it is moving. There are 8 set of position that has been
program to the microcontroller unit. The position is DOWN-LEFT, DOWN-RIGHT, UPLEFT, UP-RIGHT, DOWN, UP, LEFT, RIGHT. See table 3.
Position
Input Signal (PE3, PE2, PE1, PE0)
LEFT(L)
(0,0,0,1)
RIGHT(R)
(0,0,1,0)
DOWN(D)
(0,1,0,0)
UP(P)
(1,0,0,0)
DOWN-LEFT(DL)
(0,1,0,1)
DOWN-RIGHT(DR)
(0,1,1,0)
UP-LEFT(UL)
(1,0,0,1)
UP-RIGHT(UR)
(1,0,1,0)
Table 3: Positioning Signal
The microcontroller unit will generate two PWM signal base on the inputs signal as
there are two output signals for controlling vertical and horizontal movement. The control
flow is shown in the in figure 30. The program coding can be view in appendix A.
65
Initialize
Start
H_Signal=Position
V_Signal=Position
Y
UL
Move to position
UL
N
Y
UR
Move to position
UR
N
Y
DL
Move to position
DL
N
Y
DR
Move to position
DL
N
Y
D
Move to position
D
N
Y
U
Move to position
U
N
Y
L
Move to position
L
N
Y
R
Move to position
R
N
Figure 31: Control Program Flow Chart
66
The hardware shown in figure 29 is working correctly ass expected. There are two
tests that have been conducted and captured in video and it is included in CD with this
thesis. In this Chapter also illustrates the test visual.
First test is with my own self as an object. The project hardware is place in a table
and object sits on a chair next to the table. See figure 32.Sequent 1 show object move to
the left and stop. Sequent 2 show project hardware starts to keep focus on object and lock
video camera focus on object. Sequent 3 show object move again, object move to the
right. Sequent 4 shows then again project hardware keeps the video camera lock focus on
object by moving also to the right.
Sequent 1
Sequent 2
Sequent 3
Sequent 4
Figure 32: CCTV View
67
Sequent 1
Sequent 2
Sequent 3
Sequent 4
Figure 33: Overall View
See figure 33.Sequent 1 show object move forward and stop. Sequent 2 show project
hardware starts to keep focus on object and lock video camera focus on object. Sequent 3
show object move again, object move backward. Sequent 4 shows then again project
hardware keeps the video camera lock focus on object by moving also to the right. Note
that the action for figure 31 and figure 33 taken are the same but it is captured separately.
One of the characteristic of project output is the video camera will lock focus on one
life form. However if there are more than one life form on the surveillance area, there is
no expectant behaviour of the system. This is a hardware project and the stability depends
on test & troubleshoots phase. Nevertheless it is a costly project.
68
6.2.
Suggestion
From results and discussion there are still many more features can be added and the
performance can be increase the project hardware stability. Here are some suggestions
that can be done for improvement.
The sensors performance can be improve extremely if the mounting process has been
research properly. Since there a lot of stability problem, so there is not enough time for
the research. Research can be conduct by internet, hardware testing to understand how
the Fresnel lens can be mounting effectively. Currently in sensor performance of distance
attribute there is about 0.03% of the maximum performance. Note that without a fresnel
lens, sensor ranges is about 3 feet and with lens it’s about 90 feet.
The process control also can be upgrade. Currently process control is quite simple
that is just a direct control method. The project hardware currently also not moving
smoothly and cannot follow a high speed movement. The look-up table cannot be
implementing concurrently because the degree of movement cannot be determine by
project hardware by any mean since it’s not equipped with measurement sensor. However
with PWM signal mapping method the degree movement can be determine after project
hardware finished her move.
Suggestion for improving process control can be done if the hardware project
support with an intelligent element such as fuzzy logic. The object movement can be
determining by inference engine from set of knowledge base. With this upgrade there
possibility project hardware can follow a higher speed than currently performance.
In the implementing process it has already test with fuzzy logic control method,
however it’s failed to archive the project objective because there are limited memory of
M68HC11E1 microcontroller unit in a single mode. It’s is suggested to use and external
memory since the microcontroller unit do support the fuzzy logic with a specific tools
from Motorola itself.
69
6.3.
Conclusion
The Embedded Video Camera Movement Controller System project has been
successfully archiving the objectives of project set up in the beginning of the project.
This project result operates base on focussing a life form within range of sensor and it is a
embedded system that control Video camera stand movement.
The project will be the 1st controlled system base on pyroelectric sensors in faculty
of electrical engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for as long as I know and
expected to be capable to lock on a life form that emits heat similar to human in it
surveillance area. Overall progress for the project is good.
70
References
[1]: Motorola, “M68HC11E Family Technical Data”, Motorola Inc
[2]: Peter Spasov (2004).”Microcontroller Technology” (international edition), Prentice
Hall
[3]:http://www.microsyl.com
[4]: Glolab “Infrared Parts Manual”, Glolab Corporation.
71
Appendix A
Program Coding
REGBAS
PORTE
EQU
EQU
$1000
$0A
OC1M
OC1D
TCNT
EQU
EQU
EQU
$0C
$0D
$0E
TOC4
TOC5
TCTL1
TCTL2
TMSK1
TFLG1
TMSK2
TFLG2
PACTL
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
$1C
$1E
$20
$21
$22
$23
$24
$25
$26
OC4HI
OC4LO
OC5HI
OC5LO
EQU
EQU
EQU
EQU
$48
$4A
$4C
$4E
SENSOR
MEMV
MEMH
EQU
EQU
EQU
$50
$52
$54
ORG
$B600
;--------------------------; INITIALIZE
;--------------------------LDS
#$01FF
LDX
#REGBAS
;--------------------------;INITIALIZE OUTPUT CAPTURE VECTORS
;---------------------------
LDAA
STAA
LDY
STY
#$7E
$D6
#SOC4I
$D7
;SET VECTOR SOC4I
LDAA
STAA
LDY
STY
#$7E
$D3
#SOC5I
$D4
;SET VECTOR SOC5I
;---------------------------;INITIALIZE SERVO POSITION
;---------------------------LDD
#2800
STD
MEMH
LDD
#2750
STD
MEMV
;
;
;
;
JSR
LDD
STD
LDD
STD
SERVO4
#2800
OC4HI
#37200
OC4LO
;SERVO OC4 (UpDown)
72
;
;
;
;
JSR
LDD
STD
LDD
STD
SERVO5
#2700
OC5HI
#37300
OC5LO
;SERVO OC5 (LeftRight)
JSR
INITOC
CLI
;ENABLE INTERRUPT
*********************************************************************************************
LOOP
LDAA
PORTE,X
;load sensor signal
JSR
LENGAH
STAA
SENSOR
BRCLR SENSOR #%00001001 SERVOUL
;position sensing
BRCLR SENSOR #%00001010 SERVOUR
BRCLR SENSOR #%00000101 SERVODL
BRCLR SENSOR #%00000110 SERVODR
BRCLR SENSOR #%00000100 SERVOD
BRCLR SENSOR #%00001000 SERVOU
BRCLR SENSOR #%00000001 SERVOLtemp
BRCLR SENSOR #%00000010 SERVORtemp
BRA
LOOP
SERVORtemp
SERVOLtemp
JMP
JMP
SERVOR
SERVOL
SERVOU
JSR
LDD
ADDD
STD
JSR
BRA
LENGAH
MEMV
#100
MEMV
SERVO4
LOOP
LDD
ADDD
STD
BSR
LDD
SUBD
STD
BSR
BRA
JSR
LENGAH
MEMV
#100
MEMV
SERVO4
MEMH
#100
MEMH
SERVO5
LOOP
LDD
ADDD
STD
BSR
LDD
ADDD
STD
BSR
BRA
JSR
LENGAH
MEMV
#100
MEMV
SERVO4
MEMH
#100
MEMH
SERVO5
LOOP
BSR
LDD
SUBD
STD
BSR
BRA
LENGAH
MEMV
#100
MEMV
SERVO4
LOOP
LDD
SUBD
STD
BSR
LDD
BSR
LENGAH
MEMV
#100
MEMV
SERVO4
MEMH
SERVOUL
SERVOUR
SERVOD
SERVODL
;OVER OFSET VALUE
73
SUBD
STD
BSR
JMP
#100
MEMH
SERVO5
LOOP
LDD
SUBD
STD
BSR
LDD
ADDD
STD
BSR
JMP
BSR
LENGAH
MEMV
#100
MEMV
SERVO4
MEMH
#100
MEMH
SERVO5
LOOP
SERVOL
BSR
LDD
SUBD
STD
BSR
JMP
LENGAH
MEMH
#100
MEMH
SERVO5
LOOP
SERVOR
BSR
LDD
ADDD
STD
BSR
JMP
LENGAH
MEMH
#100
MEMH
SERVO5
LOOP
SERVODR
*********************************************************************************************
SERVO4
LDD
STD
LDD
SUBD
STD
RTS
MEMV
OC4HI
#40000
OC4HI
OC4LO
LDD
STD
LDD
SUBD
STD
RTS
MEMH
OC5HI
#40000
OC5HI
OC5LO
SERVO5
;-----------------;SPECIAL SUBRUTIN
;-----------------LENGAH
ULANG
LDY
DEY
BNE
RTS
#21429
;WAIT 75ms
ULANG
;--------------------------------;INITIALIZE OUTPUT COMPARE CAPTURE REGISTER
;--------------------------------INITOC
LDX
PSHA
PSHB
#REGBAS
LDD
TCNT,X
;PRESERVE REGISTER
74
STD
STD
TOC4,X
TOC5,X
LDAA
STAA
#$0F
TCTL1,X
;OM4;5:OL4;5=1:1 TO SET
;OC4 TO OC5 HIGH FIRST TIME
LDAA
STAA
STAA
#$18
TFLG1,X
TMSK1,X
;CLEAR OC4F TO OC5F
PULB
PULA
RTS
;SET OC4I TO OC5I ENABLE INTERRUPT
;RETURN
;---------------------------------------------;INTERRUPT OUTPUT CAPTURE4
;---------------------------------------------SOC4I
LDX
#REGBAS
BRCLR
LDD
BRA
TCTL1,X,$04,SETLO4
OC4HI
NEWTOC4
LDD
OC4LO
ADDD
STD
TOC4,X
TOC4,X
LDAA
EORA
STAA
BCLR
TCTL1,X
#%00000100
TCTL1,X
TFLG1,X,$EF
SETLO4
NEWTOC4
;INVERT OL4 TO TOGGLE
RTI
;---------------------------------------------;INTERRUPT OUTPUT CAPTURE5
;---------------------------------------------SOC5I
LDX
#REGBAS
BRCLR
LDD
BRA
TCTL1,X,$01,SETLO5
OC5HI
NEWTOC5
LDD
OC5LO
ADDD
STD
TOC5,X
TOC5,X
LDAA
EORA
STAA
BCLR
TCTL1,X
#%00000001
TCTL1,X
TFLG1,X,$F7
SETLO5
NEWTOC5
;INVERT OL5 TO TOGGLE
RTI
**************************************************************************************************
75
Appendix B
Component List
NAMA *STAF /
PELAJAR
: MOHD FADZLI BIN
SULAIMAN
NAMA *KETUA
MAKMAL/ PENYELIA
PROJEK
TAJUK *UJIKAJI /
PROJEK
BIL.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
: EN. ZURAIMI YAHYA
NO. * PEKERJA
/ MATRIK
*JABATAN /
KURSUS
: AE000474
: 5 SEC
: SISTEM KAWALAN GERAKAN KAMERA TERBENAM DENGAN
SISTEM BANTUAN KOMPUTER.
BAHAN/KOMPONEN
KETERANGAN (UNIT/NOMBOR/SPEK)
KUANTITI
CLOCK
8 MHz CRYSTAL
27pF CAPASITOR
10MΩ RESISTOR
2
6
4
RESET
MC34064P
TACT SUIS
4.7KΩ RESISTOR
3
3
3
LM7805 +5 VOLTAGE REGILATOR
4
POWER SUPPLY
100µF 16V ELECTROLYTIC CAPASITOR
4
10µF 25V ELECTROLYTIC CAPASITOR
4
DC CONECTOR-3.5mm DC JACK PLUG (FEMALE) 4
SCI
MAX232
10µF ELECTROLYTIC CAPASITOR
Serial Connector 9 pin D_SUB (female)
1
6
1
Catatan *Ketua Makmal / Penyelia projek: ________________________________________________________________
Tandatangan *Ketua Makmal / Penyelia
……………………………….
Tarikh: …………………….
Tandatangan Juruteknik Stor & Woksyop
…..….………………………
Tarikh:
……………………
76
Lampiran 1
BIL.
BAHAN/KOMPONEN
Motor
SENSORS
KETERANGAN (UNIT/NOMBOR/SPEK)
KUANTITI
Servo Motor
LED
2
10
TACT SUIS
100KΩ 1/8 watt 5% carbon film
10KΩ 1/8 watt 5% carbon film
1 MΩ 1/8 watt 5% carbon film
2 MΩ 1/8 watt 5% carbon film
300KΩ 1/8 watt 5% carbon film
1 MΩ potentiometer (EVM-L4GA00B16)
1N914 diode
100 pF 50 volt ceramic disc (50S5-101J)
10 µF 16 volt electrolytic (MLRL16V10)
1 µF 50 volt metalized film (ECQ-V1H104JL)
2N7000 Field Effect Transistor
LP324N or equivalent micropower quad operational
amplifier
CD4538 CMOS dual single shot (CD4538BCN)
PIR325 pyroelectric infrared sensor
O RING – spacer (BUNA-N size 009)
IC socket - 14 pin (390261-3)
IC socket - 16 pin (390261-5)
6
10
10
3
6
6
6
8
3
12
8
6
10
MISCELLANEOUS PCB Board
Itching Powder
(PCB Sticker)
Microcontroller MC68HC11E1 48-Pin Dip
48 Pin Dip IC Socket
Double Wire (Multi-Core)
Triple Wire (Multi-Core)
Jumper Wire
Pin Header female 35 pin
Pin Header male 35 pin
Infrared Fresnel lens (focal length of 0.65 inch)
2
2
2
10
2
3
1 packet
2 set
2
2
*
*
*
4
4
2