Survey
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Chapter 12 Communication in Schools W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Four Caveats for Educational Administrators • Communication is difficult to isolate from other administrative processes. • Not all school problems involve miscommunication. • Communication reveals, hides, and eliminates problems. • Communication is a process that evokes action but is far from the substance of good administration. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Key Terms – Communication – sharing ideas or attitudes in ways that produce a degree of understanding between two or more people. – Message – the verbal or non-verbal cues or symbols that each communicator conveys. – Channel – the vehicle, medium, or form in which a message travels. – Sender – the person or generalized source sending a message – Receiver – the destination of the message or the individual or deciphers it. – Transmission – the actual sending and receiving of messages through designated channels or media. – Encoding – using cognitive structures and processes to convert the intended message into symbolic form by the sender. – Decoding – using cognitive structures and processes to retranslate the message by the receiver. – Feedback – the message sent in response to the initial message; information that enables corrections (Ch. 1). – Communication effects – the outcomes of the message exchange process. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools General Model of Communication Sender (source, speaker, communicator) Encoding Message In Channel Feedback W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Receiver Decoding (reader, listener, communicator) Communication in Schools One-way communication • Unilateral - initiated by the sender and terminated by the receiver – Common examples in schools • • • • Classroom lecture Exhortation by the principal PA announcements Administrative directive – Advantages • Emphasizes the skills of the sender and encourages administrators and teachers to think through, accurately articulate, and provide clarity to their ideas • Imply strong linkages between communication behavior and action W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Two-way communication • Reciprocal – all participants in the process initiate and receive messages – Common forms in schools • • • • Conversation Inquiry Debate Instruction (Socratic Method) W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Individual Communication Competence • Sending Skills – Use appropriate direct language • Avoid jargon and complex concepts – Information must be clear and complete • Build on or reorganize receiver’s cognitive schema – Minimize noise from the physical or psychological environment – Use multiple and appropriate channels of media – Use face-to-face communication and redundancy when communicating complex messages W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Public Speaking: Some Principles 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Be confident: Avoid hesitant and uncertain speech; it communicates doubt. Be direct: Get to the point without excuses. Speak quickly: A rapid pace of speech is functional. Pronounce your consonants: Pronunciation is important in conveying status, respect, and confidence. Use sophisticated speech: Refined vocabulary communicates status. Use Standard English: Slang and street language undermine respect, status, as well as the message. Speak up: Talking is an expectation of authority figures; in fact, it is a necessary condition for status. Dominate: Be aggressive in your speech; your goal should be to communicate. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Individual Communication Competence • Receiving Skills (Listening Skills) – Attending • Eye contact, receptive body language, focus – Questioning – Encouraging • Verbal and non-verbal cues – Paraphrasing – Reflecting feeling – Summarizing W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Individual Communication Competence • Feedback Skills- Sending and receiving skills that convey knowledge of results or effects of previous communications and behaviors. – Can be verbal or non-verbal • Asking questioning, describing behavior, paraphrasing – Information should be helpful to the recipient • • • • Specific rather than general Recent rather than old Directed toward behavior the person could change Timely, the more immediate the better W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Channels of Communication • • Verbal symbols – Human speech – direct, face to face conversation or electronic exchanges via telephone, radio, television, video conferencing – Written media – memos, letters, faxes, electronic mail and bulletin boards, instant messaging, newspapers. Non-verbal symbols – Body language or gestures – facial expressions, posture, hand and arm movements – Physical items or artifacts with symbolic value – office furnishings, clothing, and jewelry – Space – Territoriality and personal space – Touching and hugging – Time – Intonation, accents, pitch, intensity, rate of speech W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Sources in Communication Processes: Senders and Receivers • Credibility – Believability, identity and reputation of the sender • Sender’s expertness and trustworthiness • Trust and confidence the receiver has in the words and actions of the sender • Cognitive Capacities – Psychological characteristics limit individual communication • Communication skills • Knowledge of subject • Personality • Motivation factors (attitudes, values, interests, expectations) W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Communicating in Context • Noise - Contextual, physical, cultural, environmental distractions that interfere with the communication process – Examples in schools • Closed organizational climates • Punishment-centered bureaucratic structures • Cultural or gender differences • Authoritarian leadership • Teacher militancy • Demographic prejudice • Outdated or obscure technology W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Information Does the language or symbols convey the information? Can it be understood by both sender and receiver? What is the content and effect of the communication? Communicators Who is speaking to whom? What roles do they occupy? Media What methods/media are being used? Context What is the context in which the communication is taking place? What factors are creating noise that might block or distort the message? W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Organizational Perspectives of Communication Communication networks - methods , vehicles, or forms a message travels in organizations. – Formal Channels • Methods sanctioned by the organization • Related to organizational goals – Informal Channels • Grapevines – Directionally vertical or horizontal – One or Two-way W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Types of roles in communication networks Person 1 Person 2 Person A Person 4 Person 3 Person A in “Star” Role W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Types of roles in communication networks Person 1 Person 2 Isolate Person B Person 4 Person 3 Person A in “Isolate” Role W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Types of roles in communication networks Person 1 Group I Group II Person 2 Person A Person 4 Person 3 Person A in “Bridge” Role W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Types of roles in communication networks Person A Group I Group II Person A in “Liaison” Role W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Formal communication networks – – – – – Channels of communication must be known Channels must link every member of the organization Lines of communication must be a direct and short as possible The complete network of communication is typically used Every communication is authenticated as being from the correct person occupying the position and within his or her authority to issue the message W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Three characteristics of schools critical to formal communication networks – Centralization The degree to which authority is not delegated but concentrated in a single source in an organization – Shape The number of hierarchical levels or “tallness v. flatness” of the organization – Technology As communication technology becomes more sophisticated, its use will dramatically alter communication in both formal and informal networks W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Informal communication networks Advantages of “the grapevine” – Active informal networks are indicative of a school’s culture and provide vital feedback to leaders – Informal channels may satisfy social or affiliation needs not met by formal channels – Grapevines fill an information void and provide outlets when formal information channels are clogged – Informal networks provide meaning for activities within the school W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Directional “chain of command” Five types of communication from superior to subordinate (Downward) • Instructions about specific tasks • Rationale about why the task needs to be done and how it relates to other tasks • Information about organizational procedures and practices • Feedback about the performance levels of individuals • Information regarding the organization’s goals W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Communication in Schools Directional “chain of command” Four types of communication from lower to upper levels of hierarchy (Upward) • • • • Routine operational messages Reports on problems Suggestions for improvement Information on how subordinates feel about each other and the job W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Practical Imperatives • Use multiple communication strategies to enhance understanding: Not everyone learns the same way. • Ensure that verbal and nonverbal communications are consistent: Limit communication confusion. • Develop ways to verify understandings of communications: Communicating is not the same as understanding. • Use the grapevine to assess potential reactions to communications: Informal communication is usually more authentic than formal communication. • Encourage questions and restatements of messages to reduce ambiguity: Clarity comes from persistence and redundancy. • Check for understanding: Use feedback techniques to ensure that all parties have the same understanding. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011 Practical Imperatives • Follow oral communications with written summaries of understanding: Clarity and redundancy avoid misunderstandings. • Complement the formal communication network with the informal: Informal networks are more authentic. • Use richer media (e.g. one-to-one interactions) as content becomes more complex and ambiguous: Complexity requires clarity. • Clarify your communication so as to reduce noise (e. g. extraneous information): Clarity is crucial to understanding. • Enhance you repertoire of communication skills and strategies: Different people and situations require a variety of communication strategies. W. K. Hoy © 2003, 2008, 2011