Download 1.4 Classification of bones

Peoples' Friendship University of Russia
Agricultural-Technological of Institute
Department of Veterinary Medicine
S.B.Seleznev, E.O. Starsteva, E.A. Krotova
Guidelines for the course
« THE ANATOMY OF DOMESTIC ANIMALS:
the osteoarthrology»
Moscow
2016
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Approved by
FIG Academic Council of PFUR
Seleznev S.B., Starsteva E.O., Krotova E.A.
Guidelines for the course «The anatomy of domestic animals: the osteoarthrology».
For the students of 1-2 courses of Faculty of Agriculture in the specialty «Veterinary
Medicine» - Moscow: PFUR, 2016.- 55 p.
The guidelines include charts and tables, each is accompanied with instructions and
explanations, aimed at consolidating the material on osteology and arthrology.
The purpose of the guidelines is to teach students to understand the comparative
anatomy of the skeleton and connection of bones.
Reviewers:
Professor in FGBOU VO “MGAVMiB them. K.i. Skryabina”, D.Vet.N., V.N. Baimatov;
Professor in FGAOU VO “RUDN”, D.Vet.N., Y.A. Vatnikov
Prepared by the Department of Veterinary Medicine of the Peoples' Friendship
University of Russia.
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Introduction
Osteology (lat. osteologia) is the section of the anatomy of domestic animals,
studying the structure of the skeletal system. Bones of a skeleton provide mechanical
protection of a brain and spinal cord, organs of thoracic and pelvic cavities. Red bone
marrow is placed in the spongy substance of the bone, where the processes of
hematopoiesis and differentiation of cells of the immune system are held. Bone actively
participating in mineral metabolism, deposits up to 97% of the total number of calcium,
phosphorus, etc. Bone tissue contains four types of cells: osteogenic cells, osteoblasts,
osteocytes and osteoclasts, which are located in intercellular substance. The peculiarity of
the intercellular substance of bone tissue is the presence of inorganic compounds - calcium
phosphate, hydrolate and various trace elements - copper, zinc, barium, magnesium, etc.
Depending on the arrangement of collagen fibers in intercellular substance, they
distinguish reticular-fibrous and lamellar bone tissue.
Graph 1.
In reticular-fibrous bone tissue fibers are disordered, forming a coarse network.
Cells are placed in the holes of this network. Reticular-fibrous bone tissue occurs directly
from the mesenchyme, it forms most of the skull bones and the attachment sites of tendons
and ligaments to bone. In lamellar bone tissue fibers lie in rows, forming parallel plates:
the osteons and inserted plates to the orderly arrangement of fibers and cells. The osteons
are a system of tube-like plates of bone, which is located inside the canal with a blood
vessel. Gusset plates located between them are the remains of the destroyed osteons.
Lamellar bone is formed from cartilage, which is laid from the mesenchyme. It builts most
tubular and flat bones.
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Synosteology (lat. artrologia) is the section of the anatomy of domestic animals,
studying the connection of the skeletal bones. These connections retain the bone next to
each other and give mobility to them.
1. General osteology
1.1 Anatomical terminology
For a more precise description of the topography and the relative position of the
individual parts and organs the entire body of the animal is dissected conventionally by
three planes.
Sectional planes and directions:
1 - sagittal plane
A vertical plane passing along the animal's body, dividing it into two halves: the left
and right.
There are two directions in this plane:
- Lateral - out
- Medial - inside
2 - Segmental plane
It divides the body of the animal across into 2 halves: the front and rear.
Directions:
- Cranial - forward
- Caudal - back
3 - Front (horizontal) plane
It divides the body into two parts: upper and lower.
Directions:
- Dorsal - up
- Ventral – down.
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Picture 1.
Picture 2.
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1.2 General characteristics of the skeleton
The basis of the skeletal system is the skeleton. The skeleton is a system of bones
united in a certain order that form a solid frame body of the animal. The structure of the
skeleton consists of more than two hundred bones that are joined together using a
connective, cartilaginous, or osseous tissue. The mass of the skeleton is that of an adult
animal from 5% to 15% of body weight.
The total number of bones varies widely and depends on species, breed and
individual characteristics.
1.3. The structure of bone as an organ
The main structural unit of the skeleton is the bone (lat. os), which consists of
organic and inorganic compounds. Inorganic compounds include water (50%) and salts of
calcium, phosphorus, magnesium and other elements (22%). Organic compounds are
mainly represented by ossein (12%) and lipids (16%). A specific compound of organic and
inorganic substances gives elasticity, strength and hardness to the bone. Outside the bone
is covered with a membrane, the periosteum (lat. реriоsteum), in which they distinguish
two layers: external and internal. The external or fibrous layer consists of dense connective
tissue with lots of collagen fibers. The internal layer consists of areolar connective tissue,
there are osteoblasts that produce bone tissue, vessels and nerves. The internal layer
provides the growth of the bone in width and its regeneration after fracture. After a
periosteum there is a compact substance (lat. substantia compacta). It is constructed of a
lamellar bone tissue. Osteons form the bone rails lying densely to each other.
The spongiform substance (lat. substantia spongiosa) is placed under the compact
substance. It is constructed of separate thin osteal rails, which are settled down loosely and
form cells. Inside the bone the medullar cavity (lat. cavum meduale) is located, the walls
of which are lined with endosteum. As well as the periosteum, an endosteum (lat.
endosteum) consists of osteoblasts which construct bone tissue.
In cells of spongiform substance there is a red marrow (lat. medula ossium rubra)
which carries out hemopoiesis function. Red marrow is found in all bones in the
embryogenesis and newborns. Over time it turns into yellow marrow (lat. medula ossium
flava) as there is a replacement of a myeloid (hemopoietic) tissue on adipose tissue and
function of the hemopoiesis decreases.
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The last structural element of a bone is the hyaline cartilage, which covers articular
surfaces of the bone.
Graph 2.
Picture 3. Sagittal section of a long bone after maceration (A), and sagittal section of
an untreated long bone including joint cartilage and red bone marrow.
1.4 Classification of bones
Each bone has a certain form, size, structure and origin. Depending on it, there are
several classifications of bones by form and origin.
Classification by form:
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1) Long bones (lat. os longum) are tubular (humeral, femoral) and arcuate (ribs).
They are characterized by length over width. These bones play the major role in the statics
and dynamics of an animal.
2) Short bones (lat. os breve) usually are small; their height, width and thickness are
close by the size (bones of a carpus, tarsal). Their primary function is to provide support
and stability with little to no movement: depreciation function.
3) Flat bones (lat. os planum) have a larger surface at a small thickness and do not
contain medullar cavities. They usually participate in formation of walls of cavities of the
body and protect internal organs (the scapula, ischium, ilium, pubis bones).
4) Mixed bones (lat. os mixtum) have a complex form, combining in themselves
signs of the bones listed above (occipital, sphenoid, temporal bones).
5) Pneumatic bones (lat. os pneumaticum) have cavities inside, filled with air and
covered with mucosa. It facilitates their weight, but does not reduce their durability
(frontal, maxillae, ethmoid bones).
6) Sesamoid bones (lat. os sesamoideum) are the bones that are located in the
tendons of muscles and help to strengthen their activities (a patella, sesamoid bone 1, 3
phalanges).
1.5 Division of a skeleton into departments
The skeleton can be divided into axial and peripheral. The axial skeleton includes a
head (a skull - lat. cranium), skeleton of a neck, trunk and tail. The main part of a skeleton
of a neck, trunk and tail is the spine column (lat. columna vertebralis). It is divided into
cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and caudal parts.
• The cervical spine consists of vertebrae (lat. v. cervicales);
• The thoracal spine consists of vertebrae, ribs (lat. costae) and a sternum (lat. os
sternum). Thoracal vertebrae, ribs and a sternum form the thorax (lat. thorax);
• The lumbar spine consists of vertebrae (lat. v. lumbales) and in sacral part
vertebrae coalesce, forming a sacral bone (os sacrum);
• Vertebrae of caudal department (lat. v. caudales) are subjected to reduction.
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Graph 3.
The peripheral skeleton (skeleton of limbs) consists of girdles and limbs. The girdle
provides connection of a limb with a trunk. The limb is divided on three links:
stilopodium, zygopodium and autopodium.
2. Individual osteology
2. 1 The axial skeleton
2.1.1 The Spine
The main part of a skeleton of a neck, trunk and tail is the spine. The spinal cord is
located inside of it, in the spinal channel (lat. canalis vertebralis). Structural unit of a spine
is the vertebrae (lat. vertebrae).
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Graph 4.
Each vertebra has a body (centra) and a vertebral arch, also called a neural arch.
The body is the main part of a vertebra, it has a head (lat. caput) on its cranial extremity, a
fossa on caudal extremity and crest (lat. crista) on ventral extremity. The head and a fossa
connect vertebrae with each other. The vertebral arch (lat. arcus vertebrae) is formed by a
pair of stems and a pair of plates, and supports seven processes: one spinous (lat.
processus spinosus), two transverse (lat. pr. transversus), four articular (lat. pr. articularis).
These processes act in attachment of muscles and ligaments to vertebrae. Two transverse
processes and one spinous process are posterior to the vertebral body (behind of it).
On the sides of an arch there is a double vertebral incisure (lat. incisura vertebralis),
which forms an intervertebral foramen (lat. foramen invertebrale). The spinal cord nerves
leave and blood vessels enter through this foramen. Between the body and the arch there is
a vertebral foramen (lat. foramen vertebrale), which is formed from the spinal canal (lat.
canalis vertebralis).
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The vertebrae in each part (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacrum, and caudal) have
unique features that help them to perform their main functions.
Picture 4.
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Table 1.
Comparative anatomy of the vertebrae
Characteristics
Horse
Cattle
Pig
Dog
1 cervical vertebra - Atlant (Atlas)
Wings Atlanta:
● foraminotomy
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-
Foramen
intervertebrale
● Hole in the wings
incesura
Foramen alare
alare
● cross- hole
+
-
+
+
3
2
3
2
foramen
transversarium
number of holes
2 cervical vertebra - Axis
(Axis)
● odontoid bone
beveled
(dens)
cylinder
●
comb
semi- hollow semi thick,
-cylinder
(crista strongly
axis)
short thin,
cylinder
long
cylinder
is not forked the narrow, cranially
developed
and , a 4- carbon caudally
caudally forked
plate
angled
hangs
over
the odontoid
3-5 neck vertebrae - typical
(v. cervicales)
● the head, fossa
well expressed
well
poorly
poorly
expressed
expressed,
expressed,
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flat
● spinous process
rough
flat
thickening at directed
underdevelo
the end
ped
cranial
7 cervical vertebra
● Caudal rib facet
● spinous process
+
+
underdeveloped
+
long,
long,
caudally
caudally
directed
directed
+
spire like
Thoracic vertebrae
(v. Thoracica)
● amount
● the head, fossa
18-19
13
well expressed
well
14-15
flat
13
flat
expressed
● cross- rib facet
flat
curved
curved
flat
bone rib ( Os costale)
● the number of
18-19
13
pairs
● tubercle
14-
13
curve
flat
15
flat
curved
d
● the body
the same width
different
the angle of hoop-shaped
width
the ribs
(angulus
costae)
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Brisket (sternum)
● Direction of the dorsal- cranial
cranio-
cranio-
handle
dorsally
ventral
● xiphoid
-
+
cranial
+
+
7
7
(pr. xipoideus)
lumbar vertebra (v. lumbales)
● amount
6
6
●articular
flat
curved
curved
flat
processes
●strongly
straight
developed
long
and rugged
and
curved
flat directed
curved
crans-
transverse
ventral
processes
sacrum (os sacrum)
● amount
● wings
5
in a triangle
(ala osis sacri)
5
4
in the form of in
an
3
a
irregular quadrangle
in
a
quadrangle
square
●spinous processes do
(the crest)
not
grow forms a ridge
none
together
do not grow
together
caudal vertebrae (v. caudales)
● amount
18-20
18-20
20-23
20-23
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2.1.2 Skull
Skull (lat. cranium) is constructed generally of flat bones, borders between which
are expressed only at young age. Most of the bones of a skull have air spaces - sinuses.
These sinuses make a skull lighter, but keep the extensive areas for fixing muscles. The
skull carries a supportive and protective function. The brain, organs of vision, hearing,
equilibrium and olfaction are placed in it.
In the area of the head there can be dissected into sagittal and frontal segmental
plane.
• Direction from segmental plane of the skull to the side of the mouth is
called oral, and the opposite direction (to the occipital bone) - aboral;
• Direction from the sagittal plane are denoted the same way as on the body:
lateral and medial;
• Directions from the frontal plane are denoted by the terms dorsal and
ventral.
Skull consists of cerebral and facial parts with the border running through the
segmental plane along the edge of the orbit.
Bones of cerebral department of a skull form:
a) a cranial cavity - where the brain is placed;
b) an orbit - where the organ of vision is placed;
c) a skeletal framework for an organ of hearing and equilibrium.
Cranial cavity (lat. cavum cranii) is formed by the following bones: occipital, sphenoid,
parietal, interparietal, frontal, ethmoid and temporal.
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1. Occipital bone (lat. os occipitale) - unpaired. This bone is placed at
the base os a skull.
Picture 5.
Part of the occipital bone:
1 - Scales (lat. Squama occipitalis)
2 - Side part (lat. Pars lateralis).
There are the following elements:
- The foramen magnum (foramen occipital magnum)
- Condyle (lat. Processus condyles occipitalis)
- Jugular processes (lat. Processus jugularis)
- The opening of the hypoglossal nerve (lat. Foramen nervi hyppoglossi).
3 - The body of the occipital bone (lat. Sorpus os occipital)
- Torn hole (lat. Foramen lacerum)
- Pit medulla (lat. Fossa medulla oblangata).
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2. Sphenoid bone (lat. os sphenoidale) is unpaired. Lies at the base
of
the cranium (cerebral part), ahead from a body of an occipital bone.
Composition:
1 - pterygoid process lat. ( processus pterygoideus)
- pterygoid canal (a dog, a horse)
2 - the body of the sphenoid bone (lat. sorpus os sphenoidale).
- presfenoid (lat. presphenoid)
- basisphenoid (lat. basisphenoid)
- turkish saddle (lat. sella turcica)
- the optic chiasm (lat. sulcus chyasmatis)
literally trough the optic chiasm
3 - wings (orbital, temporal) (lat. ala orbitale, temporale)
- ethmoid foramen (lat. foramen ethmoidale)
- visual foramen (lat. foramen opticum)
- orbital fissure (lat. fissure orbitalis)
- cylindrical foramen (lat. foramen rotundum)
3. Parietal bone (lat. os parietale) - double. Forms a "roof" of a cranial
cavity. It has external and internal surfaces.
4. Interparietal bone (lat. os interparietale) - unpaired. Settles down
between parietal and occipital bones.
5. Frontal bone (lat. os frontale) - double. Involved in the formation of
the dorsal wall of the cranial cavity, orbit and nasal cavity. Has sinuses.
Composition:
1 - outer plate (lat. lamina externa)
2 - inner plate (lat. lamina interna)
3- the orbital plate (lat. lamina orbitalis)
- the zygomatic process of the frontal bone (lat. processus zygomaticus
os frontale)
- Supraocular foramen (lat. foramen suproorbitale).
6. Ethmoid bone (lat. os ethmoidale) - unpaired. It is located on the
border between the cerebral and facial parts of the skull. Forms the
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anterior wall of the cranial cavity. It consists of two plates: cribriform
plate (lat. lamina cribrosa), perpendicular plate (lat. lamina
perpendicularis) and ethmoidal labyrinth (lat. labyrinthus ethmoidalis).
7. Temporal bone (lat. os temporale) - double. Forms sidewalls of a
cranial cavity.
Composition:
1 - scales (lat. Squama temporalis)
- zygomatic process (lat. Processus zygomaticum)
- mastoid process (lat. Processus mastoideus, mamilaris)
- foramen facial nerve (lat. Canalis facialis)
2 - the drum part (lat. Pars tympanica)
- the external auditory meatus (lat. meatus acusticus exsternus)
- drum bubble (lat. bulla timpanica)
- sublingual process (lat. Processus sublingvalis).
- muscle process (lat. Processus muscullaris).
- foramen bone sound tube (lat. tuba auditiva ossa)
3 - the rocky (rocky) part (lat. Pars petrosa)
- the internal auditory canal (lat. meatus acusticus internus)
- external aqueduct threshold to the opening (lat. aperture externa
aquaeductus vestibule)
- external aqueduct snail hole (lat. aperture externa aquaeductus
cochle).
Orbit (lat. orbita) is formed by the following bones: frontal, temporal, lacrimal and
zygomatic.
8. Lacrimal bone (let. os lacrimale) - double. Forms the medial part of
the orbit. This bone consists of two plates - facial and orbital. In a
medial angle of an orbital plate the fossa sacci lacrimalis with the
foramen lacrimale (which leads into the nasal cavity) are placed.
9. Zygomatic bone (lat. os zygomaticum) - double. Besides orbit, this
bone also forms the zygomatic arch. This arch consists of zygomatic
process and temporal process.
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Nasal cavity (lat. cavum nasi) formed by the following bones: nasal, incisive,
maxilla, pterygoid and palatine.
10. Nasal bone (lat. os nasale) - double. This bone forms the "roof" of a
nasal cavity.
11. Incisive bone (lat. os incisivum) - double. Forms an entrance to the
nasal cavity.
Part of:
1 -the body of the bone (lat. corpus os incisivi)
• dental edge (lat. margo alveolaris)
2 - the nasal processes (lat. processus nasale)
3 - palatine processes (lat. processus palatinum)
12. Maxilla (lat. maxilla) - double. Forms sidewalls of a nasal cavity.
Part of:
1 - the body of the bone (lat. corpus os maxillare)
• the alveolar edge (lat. margo alveolaris)
• the maxillary tubercle (lat. tubor maxillare)
2 - bow plate (lat. lamina nasalis)
• suborbital foramen (lat. foramen infroorbitale)
• malar arch (lat. arcus zygomaticus)
3 - palatine processes of the maxilla (lat. processus palatinum)
In the maxilla and its boundary there are 3 channels:
1 - infraorbital canal (lat. canalis infroorbitalis)
2 - palatine canal (lat. canalis palatinus)
3 – palatal wedge foramen (lat. foramen sphenopalatinus)
13. Pterygoid bone (lat. os pterygoideum) - double. Involved in the
formation of the sidewall of nasal apertures (also known as the choanae).
Its free margin forms a small hooked-shaped process - the pterygoid
hamulus (lat. hamulus pterygoideus).
14. Palatine bone (lat. os palatina) - double. Forms an exit from a nasal
cavity. Consists of two plates: horizontal plate (lat. lamina horizontalis)
and perpendicular plate (lat. lamina perpendicularis)
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15. Nasal conchas (lat. conchae nasales) - double. They look like thin,
twisted, osteal plates which are attached to maxillary and nasal bones.
16. Vomer (lat. vomer) - unpaired. It is a long bone that separates
choanae into two parts.
Nasal cavity (lat. cavum oris) formed by the following bones: incisive, maxilla,
pterygoid, palatine and mandible. Inside of the oral cavity there is a hyoid bone.
17. Mandible (lat. mandibula) - double. Forms sidewalls and the bottom
of an oral cavity.
Composition:
1 - body lat. (lat. corpus os mandibulare)
• dental edge (lat. margo alveolaris)
• mental foramen (lat. foramen mentale)
2 - branch (lat. ramus) mandibular bone
• dental edge (lat. margo alveolaris)
• pit chewing muscles (lat. fossa massaterica) laterally
• pterygium fossa (lat. fossa pterigoidea) medially
• mandibular hole (lat. foramen mandibulare). The branch ends with two
processes:
• condylar process (lat. procesus condylaris)
• coronary process (lat. procesus coronoidea)
18. Hyoid bone (lat. os hyoideum) - unpaired. The hyoid are situated
between the rami of the mandible at the base of the tongue. Act as the suspensory
mechanism for the tongue and larynx.
Part of:
1 - the body (lat. corpus hyoidea)
• lingual process (lat. procesus lingvalis) in large animals
• large horn (lat. cornu major)
• small horn (lat. cornu minor)
The branches of the small horns:
• epihyoideum
• stylohyoideum
•tumpanohyoideum
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Picture 6.
Table 2.
Comparative anatomy of the skull
Morphological
features
Horse
Cattle
Pig
Dog
1 - the ratio of face
and brain
2:1
1:1
1:1
1:2
2 - occipital crest
+
-
+
+
-
+
frontal ridge
3 – pterygoid canal
(сanalis
pterygoideus)
4 – orbit
+
closed
-
closed
not closed
not closed
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5 – supraorbital hole
1
2
1
-
+
-
-
+
1
1
(foramen
suproorbitale)
6 – incisive canal
(сanalis incisivi)
7 – mental foramen
6 – 12
2
(foramen mentale)
8 - features
separately
the
frontal proboscis
isolated rocky bone
has bone
bone
horny
(os rostrum)
appendages
(os petrosa)
Well
developed
temporal
fossa (fossa
temporalis)
(procesus
cornualis)
2.2 Peripheral skeleton
Peripheral skeleton or the skeleton of the limbs is constructed mainly of long bones,
shaped like cylinder with thickened ends. The middle part of the bone (which is more
narrow) called the body - diaphysis. The extended ends are called epiphysis. That part,
which is closer to the vertebral column, is called the proximal epiphysis and opposite is
called distal epiphysis.
Between the epiphysis and the diaphysis is the metaphyseal area, presented with a
metaphyseal
cartilage,
by
means
of
which
bone
grows
in
length.
In the area of the limb, as well as on the body, you can hold three planes.
Direction from segmental plane forward is called a dorsal plane, the backward
direction on the thoracic limb - palmar and pelvic - plantarum. Directions from the sagittal
plane are denoted in the same way as on the trunk. As for the frontal plane, it is based on
the location to the vertebral column, so the upward direction will be called the proximal
and the downward will be called the distal.
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Picture 7.
The peripheral skeleton consists of girdle - zone in which the limb is attached to the body,
and
forelimbs.
Forelimb is divided into three segments: stylopodium, zeugopodium and
autopodium. Autopodium also has three parts: basipodium, metapodium and acropodium.
2.2. 1 The skeleton of the thoracic limb
The skeleton of the thoracic limb consists of the shoulder girdle, scapula and a
forelimb.
Scapula (lat. scapula) - is a lamellar bone, triangular in shape. By means of the
muscles it attaches the thoracic limb to the trunk.
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Picture 8. Scapula (A – lateral, B – medial aspect)
Table 3.
Comparative anatomy of the blade:
Sign
1 – the projection of
the blade spine
(acromion)
2 – protuberance
scapula spine
(tubor
scapulae)
3 - features
Horse
Cattle
Pig
Dog
-
+
-
+
+
-
+
-
incisura
cavitus
glenoidalis
-
-
-
spinae
The skeleton of the proximal part (stylopodium) of the forelimb is formed by a
humeral bone (lat. humerus os brachii) which is classified as long tubular bone.
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The humerus (lat. os brachii)
1 - Proximal epiphysis
- head (lat. caput humeri)
- the neck (lat. collum humeri)
- a large mound (lat. tuberculum major).
- a small hill (lat. tuberculum minor)
- intertubercular chute (lat. sulkus intertubercularis)
2 - Diaphysis
- the body of the bone (lat. corpus humeri)
- shoulder crest (lat. crista humeri).
- deltoid roughness (lat. tuberositas deltoidea).
- round burr (lat. tuberositas teres).
3 - Distal epiphysis
- ulnar fossa (lat. fossa olecrani)
- lateral epicondyle (lat. epicondilus lateralis).
- medial epicondyle (lat. epicondilus medialis).
- joint unit (lat. trochlea humeri)
Picture 9. Left humerus of the horse (A - caudal, B - cranial aspects)
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Table 4.
CHARACTERISTICS
HORSE
CATTLE
bicipital groove
double
unpaired
deltoid
tuberosity
strongly
developed
normal
-
-
Supratrochlear
foramen
PIG
DOG
CAT
Ringunpaired
shaped
poor developed
-
straight
twisted
Zeugopodium (the skeleton of the distal part) consists of two tubular bones —
radius (lat. radius) and ulna (lat. ulna). Radius is strongly developed, proximal extremity
carries the caput (lat. caput radii) which is transversely widened to present the radial
articular facet (lat. fovea capitis radii). The distal extremity forms a trochlea which is set at
right angles to the long axis of the radius and presents the articular surface towards the
carpus (lat. facies articularis carpea).As for an ulnar bone, it is strongly reduced (especially
in a horse and cattle). The ulna's proximal extremity carries olecranon and its tuber and the
distal extremity (lat. caput ulnae) continues as the prominent lateral styloid process (lat.
processus styloideus lateralis).
Picture 10. Radius and ulna of the horse (A – lateral and B – caudal aspect).
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Table 5.
Sign
Comparative anatomy of the forearm bones
Horse
Cattle
Pig
1
– synostosis
connection
type bones
2–
1
interosseous
space
3 – elbow
there is only
the proximal
bone
epiphysis
synostosis
Dog
syndesmosis
flexibly
connected
2
1(2)
1
it reduced,
but there is
all along
short,
massive,
greatly
expanded at
the distal
epiphysis
a long, thin
, tapering
to the
distal
epiphysis
Autopodium consist of three segments (from proximal to distal): basipodium carpal bones (lat. ossa carpi), metapodium - metacarpal bones (lat. ossa metacarpalia) and
acropodium - phalanges (lat. ossa digitorum manus).
Basipodium includes the carpal bones (lat. ossa carpi) that are classified as short
asymmetrical bones. They form two rows: proximal and distal bones.
The proximal (lat. antebrachial) as a rule, consists of four bones:
- radial carpal bone (lat. os carpi radiale),
- intermediate carpal bone (lat. os carpi intermedium),
- ulnar carpal bone (lat. os carpi ulnare) and
- accessory carpal bone (lat. os carpi accessorium).
In carnivores the radial and intermediate carpal bones are fused, so that the total
numbers of carpal bones is reduced to seven.
The distal (metacarpal) row (mediolateral sequence) contains five bones but IV and
V of them usually are fused.
28
- first carpal bone (lat. os carpale primum, I)
- second carpal bone (lat. os carpale secundum, II)
- third carpal bone (lat. os carpale tertium, III)
- fourth carpal bone (lat. os carpale quartum, IV)
Ruminants have six carpal bones, the first carpal bone is missing, and II and III
carpal bones are fused, as well as IV and V.
Metapodium consists of metacarpal bones (lat. ossa metacarpalia) which are
classified as long tubular bone. Their distal extremity (head, caput) bearing a trochlea for
the articulation with the proximal phalanx of the fingers. Typically metapodium consist of
five long bones (one to five - Mc I - Mc V), but number of metacarpal bones depends on
species of domestic mammals:
 Carnivores: the two middle metacarpal bones (Mc III and Mc IV) are the
longest, Mc II and Mc V are shorter and Mc I is the most reduced;
 Pig: Mc III and Mc IV are well developed (artiodactyls form), Mc II and Mc
V are reduced and Mc I is missing;
 Ruminants: Mc III and Mc IV are united on the proximal and middle part to
form the large metacarpal bone, the distal extremities articulate separately
with the proximal phalanges, Mc V is reduced to become the small
metacarpal bone, and Mc I and Mc II are lacking;

Horse: Mc III (cannon bone) is fully developed and carries the single digit;
only remnants of Mc II and Mc IV look like the splint bones, Mc I and Mc
V are missing.
Acropodium is presented by fingers (lat. ossa digitorum manus). The amount of
fingers depends on the type of animal. In carnivores (including dogs and cats) all five rays
are presented, in pigs - four rays (2-5), in ruminants two (3 and 4), plus another two nonfunctional rays (2 and 5) and in the horse only the third ray remains.
Each finger consists of three phalanges: proximal (first), the middle (second) and
distal (third).
29
The proximal phalanx has two distal sesamoid bones (lat. ossa sesamoidea) and the
distal phalanx has one sesamoid bone. Distal phalanx of a dog and a cat turned into
hooked-shaped bone and does not have sesamoid bones.
Picture 11.
30
Table 6.
Comparative anatomy of the thoracic limbs autopodia
kind of
animal
ossa capri
proksemal
distal number
number
ossa
metaсarpalia
ossa
digitorum
manus
horse
R, I, U, A
I, II + III, IV + V
II + III + IV
III
cattle
R, I, U, A
III+IV
III+IV
pig
R, I, U, A
II+III,IV+V
.
I, II+III, IV+V
II, III, IV, V
II, III, IV, V
dog
R + I, U, A
I, II, III, IV+V
I, II, III, IV, V
I, II, III, IV, V
2.2 2 The skeleton of the pelvic limb
The skeleton of the pelvic limb consists of the pelvic girdle and a hind limb.
Picture 12. Hip bone (lat. ossa coxae) and sacrum.
The pelvic girdle is presented by a coxal bone which attaches pelvic limbs to a spine
column. Coxal bone or a hip bone (lat. os coxae) has a complex lamellar configuration. It
is formed by three bones: ilium, ischium and the pubis. These bones are fused together and
form an acetabulum and the obturator foramen (lat. foramen obturatum).
31
The ilium (lat. os ilium)
1 - The body (lat. corpus ossis illi)
-most Sciatic notch (lat. incisura ischiadaca major)
2 - Wing (lat. ala ossis illii)
- gluteal surface (lat. facies glutea)
-auriculate surface (lat. facies auricularis) - medially
- iliac crest (lat. crista iliaca).
Pubic bone (lat. os pubis)
1 - Depressions branch (ramus cranialis ossis pubis)
2 - Seam branch (ramus caudalis ossis pubis)
Ischium (lat. os ischii)
1 - Body (lat. sorpus ossis ishii).
- ischial tuberosity (lat. tuber ishiadicum)
- small notch (lat. incisura ishiadaca minor)
2 – Depression branch (lat. ramus cranialis ossis ishii)
3- Seam branch (lat. ramus caudalis ossis ishii)
Table 7.
Comparative anatomy of the pelvic bones
Sign
Horse
Cattle
1 – form
the pelvic
cavity
cone
2–
maklok
3–
4
3
1
1
2
3
3
2
cylindrical
Pig
cylindrical
Dog
cone
32
ischial
tuberosity
4features
Ilium well
developed
Ilium well
developed
gluteal crest
(сrista glutea)
gluteal
fossa
(fossa
glutea)
Stylopodium of the hindlimb is formed by a femur (lat. os femoris), which is
classified as long tubular bone.
Femur (lat. os femoris)
1 – Proximal epiphysis
- head (lat. caput osis femoris)
- fossa (on the head) (lat. fossa capputis osis femor) - neck (lat. collum femoris)
- greater trochanter (lat. trochanter major)
- the lesser trochanter (lat. trochanter minor)
- intertrochanteric fossa (lat. fossa intertrochanterica)
2 - diaphysis
- Roughness of the two heads of the thigh muscles (lat. tuberositas m. bicipitalis)
3 - Distal epiphysis
- the lateral condyle (lat. condilus lateralis)
- medial condyle (lat. condilus medialis)
- intercondylar fossa (lat. fossa intercondylaris)
- block for the patella (lat. trochlea patelaris)
Patella or kneecup (lat. patella) is classified as large sesamoid bone which settles
down between femur and tibia. The patella is roughly triangular in shape with its base
facing proximally and its tip (lat. apex patellae) facing distally.
33
Table 8.
Comparative anatomy of the femur
Sign
1 – pit head
Horse
deep,
triangular
Cattle
Pig
Dog
deep,
rounded
a small,
poorly
expressed
2
– well
supracondylar expressed
fossa
fine
3 – patella
3 coal
epicondylic supracondylar
roughness tubercle
(tuberculum
supracondularis)
3 coal
bean
4 coal
a small, poorly
expressed
Picture 13. Proximal extremity of the left femur of a dog (cranial and caudal
aspects).
34
Picture 14. Distal extremity of the left femur of a dog (cranial and caudal aspect).
Zeugopodium (the skeleton of the distal part) consists of two tubular bones: tibia
shinbone (lat. tibia) and fibula or a calf bone (lat. fibula). Tibia is more developed, on
which proximal epiphysis there are two condyles and between them an eminence, and on
distal - the articular block limited on each side with malleoluses.
As for a fibula bone, it is strongly reduced (especially in a horse and cattle).
Table 9.
Comparative anatomy of the leg bones
Sign
Horse
Cattle
Pig
Do
g
Tibia
highly
developed
malleolar
gutter oblique
highly
developed short
malleolar
gutter massive,
straight
there is
crista
tibiae
Fibula
greatly
reducing completely a plate
reduced, it has proximal epiphysis
proximal
grown to the lateral
epiphysis and condyle
,
distal
diaphysis,
epiphysis become an
removably
independent
connected
malleolar bone
(os
malleolus
lateralis)
a long,
thin , Sshaped
curved
it
expressed
as
a
spoke
35
Picture 15. Left tibia and fibula of the horse (A – cranial B – caudal aspect).
Autopodium is presented by skeleton pedis and consist of three segments:
basipodium (lat. ossa tarsi) , metapodium (lat. ossa metetarsalia), acropodium (lat. ossa
digitorum pedis).
Basipodium is presented by bones of a tarsus (lat. ossa tarsi), which are classified as
short, asymmetrical bones. They form three rows: proximal, metatarsal and distal bones.
 Proximal row: presented by 2 bones - calcaneus (lat. os calcaneus) and ankle
bone (lat. os talus);

Metatarsal row: presented by 1 bone - central tarsal bone (lat. os tarsi
centrale);

Distal row: presented by 5 bones (I,II, III, IV, V).
As usual, IV and V bones from distal row are fused.
The feature of horse’s anatomy: it is I and II bones are fused.
The feature of cattle’s’ anatomy: it is II and III bones are fused, central tarsal bone
is fused with IV and V bones.
36
Metapodium consists of metatarsal bones (lat. ossa metatarsalia) which are
classified as long tubular bone. The number of metacarpal bones depends on species of
domestic mammals:
 Cats have 5 bones (I, II, III, IV, V);
 Dogs and swine have 4 bones (II, III, IV, V);
 Horses have 3 bones (II, III, IV);
 Cattle have 2 bones (III, IV - fused together)
Acropodium is presented by fingers (lat. ossa digitorum pedis). The amount of
fingers depends on the type of animal. In carnivores (including dogs and cats) four rays are
presented and theirs distal phalanx turned into hooked-shaped bone. In pigs - four rays (25), in ruminants two (3 and 4) and in the horse only the third ray is presented.
Each finger consists of three phalanges: proximal (first), the middle (second) and
distal (third).
Picture 16. Skeleton of the tarsus in the domestic mammals.
37
Table 10.
Comparative anatomy of the foot bones
Kind of animal
The distal tarsal
Metatarsus
Fingers
number
Horse
I+II, III, IV+V
II+III+IV,
cattle
I, II+III, IV+V +
III+IV
pig
I, II, III, IV+V
II, III, IV, V
dog
I, II, III, IV+V
III
III, IV
II, III, IV, V
II, III, IV, V
3. General arthrology.
3.1 Types of connection of bones.
Bones in the animal body are not located separately from each other and are
interconnected together. These compounds retain the bones next to each other and ensure
their mobility. Depending on the nature of the relationship, there are three types of
connections of bones: continuous semi-continuous and discontinuous.
I. Discontinuous connection type (lat. synarthrosis) is a compound of bones by
using a continuous layer of tissue occupying the spaces between the bones completely.
Depending on what kind of cloth the bones are connected, four types of synarthrosis are
defined.
1) Synsarcodial joint (lat. synsarcosis) is a compound of bones with the help of
muscle tissue. An example of such a compound is the attachment of the thoracic limbs to
the body that made the muscles of the shoulder girdle.
2) Ligamentous joint (lat. syndesmosis) is a compound of bones with the help of
dense connective tissue. If it is dominated by elastic fibers, then this type of connection is
called synelastodial. Syndesmoses occur as ligaments, sutures and membranes.
38
a) Sutures (lat. suturae) - contain a small amount of connective tissue and tend to connect
the flat bones of the skull.
b) Membranes (lat. membranae) - consist of collagen fibers and form a thin plate between
the bones.
c) Bundles (lat. ligamenta) are the bundles of collagen fibers, which are located on the
surface of the two bones lying next each other, and put them together.
3) Synchondrodial joint (lat. synchondrosis) is a compound bone using cartilage, which
provides not only strength, but also the elasticity of connection between the bones. For
example, the vertebral bodies are connected to each other by fibrocartilage.
4) Synostosis (lat. synostosis) is a compound of the bones using bone tissue that provides
stiffness. An example of such a compound is a fusion of the sacral vertebrae in a sacral
bone.
In the lifetime of the animal one kind of the continuous connection can be replaced by the
other. For example, some syndesmosis and synchondrosis undergo ossification. For
example, with age, the ossification of the sutures between the flat bones of the skull.
II. Symphysis (lat. symphysis) - is a transition form between continuous and discontinuous
types of connections.
Symphysis is the compound bone using cartilage in the interior of which there is a
gap (the germ of the joint cavity). An example is the pelvic symphysis (lat. symphisis
pelvini) between the right and left bones where through the females have a cavity that
provides some divergence of the pelvis during birth in cartilage matrix.
III. Another type of connection of bones - a discontinuous compound (lat. dyartrosis).
Discontinuous compounds are also called joints (lat. articulatio). That bone joints provide
greater mobility and allow them to make movements in different directions.
3.2 The structure of the joint.
They distinguish the basic elements and additional education in each joint.
The main elements are the bones of the joint surfaces, joint capsule surrounding the
ends of the bones, and the joint cavity, located inside the capsule.
39
1) The joint surfaces of connecting bones are usually covered with hyaline cartilage
tissue, and generally correspond to each other. If there is a convex bone surface (articular
head), then on the other there is concave, respectively (glenoid cavity).
2) Joint capsule surrounding the ends of the bones, consists of two layers: the outer
and inner fibrosis - synovial. The cells of the inner layer of synovial allocate specific
viscous transparent yellowish liquid - synovitis. Synovitis moisturizes articular surfaces of
bones, reduces the friction between them and is a breeding ground for articular cartilage.
Synovium in its composition is close to the blood plasma, but contains less protein and has
a higher viscosity.
3) Articular cavity lies within the joint capsule and synovium.
Graph 5
JOINT
The main elements
Additional formations
1. The joint surfaces
1. Articular discs and meniscus
of connecting bones
2. Articular ligaments
2. The joint capsule
3. Glenoid lip
3. Articular cavity
The additional formations of the joint include:
1) The articular disc and meniscus. They are constructed of fibrous cartilage and are
located in the cavity of the joint between the bones.
For example, there are the menisci of the knee, and the disk - in the temporomandibular.
They act as shock absorbers.
2) Articular ligaments - are constructed of dense connective tissue and can be placed both
outside and inside the articular cavity. Articular ligaments strengthen the joint and limit
the scope of the movement.
40
3) The glenoid lip consists of the cartilage and is located in a ring round glenoid cavity and
increases its size. Glenoid lip has a shoulder and hip joints.
Picture 17.
3.3 Classification of joints.
Each joint has a certain shape, size, structure and makes movements around certain
planes.
Depending on this, there are several classifications of joints: in structure, in shape of
the articular surfaces, in the nature of the movement.
By building the following types of joints are distinguished:
1. Simple joints (lat. art.simplex). Articular surfaces of the two bones (shoulder and hip
joints) participate in their formation.
2. Complex joints (lat. art.composita). Three or more of the articular surfaces of bones
(carpal, tarsal joints) in there formation take part.
3. Comprehensive joints (lat. art. complexa). There is an additional space in the form of a
disk or meniscus (knee) in the articular cartilage.
41
The following shapes of the articular surfaces are distinguished:
1. Ball-and-socked joints (lat. art. spheroidea) .They are characterized by the fact
that the surface of one of the bones is a sphere and the surface of the other - somewhat
concave. A typical globular articular is shoulder joint.
2. Ellipsoidal joints (lat. art. ellipsoidea). Have articular surface (convex and
concave) in the form of an ellipse. An example of this is the occipitoatlantoid joint.
3. Saddle joints lat. (art. sellaris). It is characterized by the fact that their joint
surfaces are reminiscent of the surface of the saddle. A typical saddle-shaped
temporomandibular joint.
4. Pivot joints (lat. art. trochleris) have a joint surface in the form of segments of a
cylinder, and one of them is convex, the other - concave. An example of this is the
atlantoaxial joint.
5. Ginglymoid joints (lat. art. ginglimus) are characterized so that the surface of one
bone has a recess, and the surface of the other - the guide, respectively deepening
protrusion. An example of ginglymoid joints can be digital joints.
6. Arthrodial joints (lat. art. plana) are characterized by the fact that the articular
surfaces of bones are well matched. Mobility in them is low (sacroiliac joint).
By the nature of movements they distinguished:
1. Universal joints. The motion in them is possible in many axes (flexion, extension,
adduction, abduction, supination - pronation). Examples of these joints can be shoulder,
hip joint.
2. Biaxial joints. Movement is possible in two axes, i.e. possible flexion-extension,
abduction - adduction. For example, the temporomandibular joint.
3. Uniaxial joints. The movement occurs around a single axis, i.e. only flexionextension is possible. For example, cubital, knee joints.
4. Hulless joints. They have no axes of rotation and only dice sliding relatively to
each other is possible. Examples of these joints can be sacroiliac joint and joints of the
hyoid bone, in which the motion is extremely limited.
5. Mixed
joints. Include two or more joint anatomically isolated that function
together. For example, the carpal joint.
42
Picture 18.
3.4 General laws of arthrology
1) In simple universal joints ligaments are absent, except for the hip joint in which
there is a round ligament, which limits the scope of the movement. All other joints are
required to have a side (lateral and medial) ligament providing the fortress of joints.
2) In complicated joints there are lateral ligaments which are necessarily short lateral,
collateral, interosseous, crucial, general, palmar (plantar) ligament.
3) Pelvic ligament limb joints are always greater than the homologous thoracic limb
joints.
4) Ligaments are arranged perpendicular to the rotation axis and on either side of it.
43
4. Private arthrology
4.1 Connection of the skull bones
Most of the bones of the skull are joined together by a continuous type of
connection in the form of sutures (ligamentous joint, synchondrodial and synostosis).
Intermittent connection type is presented in the form of the temporomandibular joint and
joints of the hyoid bone.
Table 11.
Connection
ligamentous apparatus
1) Temporomandibular joint
(art.temporomandibularis)
complex
(discus
- capsule (capsula articularis)
are - lateral ligament (lig. laterale)
articularis); - caudal ligament (lig.caudale)
saddle, biaxial.
(herbivores)
2) The joints of the hyoid bone - Capsule
(art.hioideum) are simple, flat,
hulless.
4.2 Connection of the spinal column
1 – occipitoatlantoid joint (lat. art.atlantooccipitale)
Feature:
- Simple, ellipsoidal, biaxial
- Ligamentous apparatus:
- 2 joint capsule (lat. capsula articularis)
- 2 membrane (lat. membrane atlantooccipitalis dorsalis et ventralis)
- 2 lateral ligament (lat. ligamenta lateralia)
44
2 - atlantno - axial joint (lat. art. Atlantoaxialis)
Feature:
- A simple, cylindrical, universal
- Ligamentous apparatus:
- 2 joint capsules (lat. capsula articularis)
- Membrane (lat. membrane atlantoaxialis dorsalis)
- The top of the dorsal ligament of the tooth (lat. lig. apices dentis)
- Ventral denticulate ligament (lat. lig. dentis ventralis)
3 - Connect the vertebrae
A - between the bodies
- The vertebral bodies are connected by intervertebral discs (lat. disci
intervertebrales) built of fibrocartilage in the center have the rest of the chord (the nucleus
pulposus - nucleus pulposus). Connection Type - synchondrosis.
- Dorsal longitudinal ligament (lat. lig. longitudinale dorsale) lies within the spinal
canal, begins dorsally on the body of the axis and ends at the bottom of the channel
sacrum.
- Ventral longitudinal ligament (lat. lig. longitudinale ventrale) begins by ventrally
in the body of the 7th thoracic vertebra and ends at the sacrum.
B - between temples and processes
- Arches - connected via yellow ligament (lat. lig. flava)
- Articular processes are connected by a joint capsule
- Transverse processes - intertransverse ligament (lat. lig. intertransversaria)
- Spinous processes - interspinous (lat. lig. interspinalia) and supraspinous (lat. lig.
supraspinale) ligament.
- Nuchae ligament (lat. lig. nuchae) is located in the neck, and is made up of the
cord (a continuation of supraspinous ligament) and the plate (a continuation of the
interspinous ligament) parts. It is weakly expressed in pigs and dogs.
45
4 – Connection of the bone ribs
A - proximal epiphysis
1 - head - joint head rib (lat. art. Capitis costae) - complex uniaxial has intraarticular
ligament heads of ribs (lat. lig. Capitis costae intraarticulare), radial ligament (lat. lig.
Capitis costae radiatum).
2 - neck - a bunch of cervical ribs (lat. lig. collum costae).
3 - tubercle - cross-rib joint (lat. art. costatransversaria) - a simple, rotational. It has
a capsule and a cross-rib ligament (lat. lig. costotransversarium).
B - distal epiphysis
1 The bone rib is connected to the cost cartilage by using synchondrodial joint, but
cows and pigs can have joints.
2 – Costae verae cost cartilage is connected to the breast bone, forming a
sternocostal joint (lat. art. sternocostales) - simple, uniaxial. It has a capsule and a ventral
sternocostal ligament (lat. lig sternocostalia radiata).
3- Costae spuriae-rib cartilage connected by ligamentous joint forming a costal arch.
2 - Brisket
1- The handle of the sternum bone is connected to the body by a simple joint in
ruminants and pigs (lat. capsule), the rest – synchondrodial joint.
2- Mucronate xiphoid - xiphoid cartilage.
3 - Bundle the sternum (lat. lig. Sterni) lies within the chest.
4.3. Connection of bones thoracic limbs
Table 12.
Connection
The scapula is attached :
1) To the body using synsarcodial
joint.
Ligamentous apparatus
46
2) The shoulder joint (art.humeri) a - capsule
simple, ball-and-socked, universal.
3) Elbow joint (art. cubiti) -
- capsule;
simple the horse, cattle.;
- collateral ligaments (lig.collaterale
complex - a pig and a dog; uniaxial.
mediale et laterale);
- barkow’s ligaments (lig.olecrani)
(only dogs).
4)
Forearm
interosseous
is
connected
membrane
by - dogs still have the annular ligament
bound (lig.radii), which holds the elbow near
(membrana interossea antebrahii).
the radii bone.
5) Carpal joint (art.carpi) -complex -
capsule: total fibrous layer and
since between radii and metacarpal synovial joint forms three cavities;
bones there are two series of short - collateral ligament (lig.collaterale
carpal bones; mixed joint. Includes carpi mediale (laterale) longum et
three synovial joint:
breve);
a) preesholder carpal joint
- palmar ( lig.palmare );
(proximal);
- medcarpal (lig.interseries);
b) medcarpal joint (middle);
-
c) carpometacarpal joints (distal);
(lig.interossea);
-
interosseous
additional
bone
ligament
ligaments
(lig.accesorii).
6) Metacarpophalangeal
- capsule;
(art.metacarpophalangea) - I phalanx - collateral ligament (lig. collaterale
joint, simple, uniaxial, ginglymoid. In mediale et laterale);
ungulates it is called fetlock joint. A -
ligaments
sesamoid
bones
pair of sesamoid bones is adjacent to (lig.sesamoidea).
it from a palmar side.
7) The proximal interphalangeal joint - capsule;
(art.
interphalangea
proximales - collateral ligament (lig. collaterale
manus) - II phalanx joint, simple mediale et laterale);
ginglymoid, uniaxial .
- Palmar ligament (lig.palmaria).
47
8) The distal interfalangeal joint - capsule;
(art.interphalangea distales manus) - - collateral ligament (lig. collaterale
III joint phalanx, simple ginglymoid, mediale et laterale);
uniaxial. Sesamoid bone is the joint - palmar ligaments (lig.palmaria);
from the adjacent to palmar side.
-
ligaments
of
sesamoid
bones
(lig.sesamoidea).
Dogs and cats have also dorsal elastic
ligaments, thanks to which the claw is
raised and is not erased when moving
the finger (lig. dorsalia)
4.4. The connection of the pelvic limb bones
Table 13.
Connection
Ligamentous apparatus
1) Separate pelvic bones (os ilium;
os ischii; os pubis) are firmly fused
together by means of synostosis.
2) Pubic and sciatic bones are
connected to each other at early age
through the symphysis - symphysis
pelvis,
in
synostosis.
old
animal
forms
48
3)Ileosacral joint (art.sacroiliaca) a - capsule ;
simple, arthrodial, hulles.
-
ileosacral
dorsal
and
ventral
ligaments (lig.sacroiliaca dorsalia et
ventralia);
- ileosacral interosseous ligaments (lig.
sacroiliaca interossea) connect sacral
tuberosity to the spinous processes;
- sacrociatic ligament (lig.sacrotuberale
latum) – is a side wall of the pelvic
cavity.
4) The hip joint (art.coxae) a simple, - capsule ;
ball-and-socked,
universal.
It
is - the head of the femur ligament (lig.
formed by acetabulum , due to capitis ossis femoris);
increased
cartilage
lips
(labium - the horse has an accessory ligament
acetabulare) and the head of the (lig. accesorium ossis femoris), which
femur.
limits the movement of the limb
sideways.
49
5) The knee joint (art. genus) is - capsule overall fibrous layer, and
comprehensive, mixed, it consists of forms two synovial cavity, which
two joints that have a common communicate with each other.
fibrous envelope.
a) femur-tibial joint
- capsule ;
(art. femorotibialis) complex, is - collateral ligaments (lig. collaterale
formed by condyles of the femur and mediale et laterale);
tibia , between which there are intra- - crucial (lig.cruciata genus) in the
articular
meniscus
cartilage form of two intersecting beams, lie in
(meniscus lateralis et medialis).
the intercondylar fossa ;
-
meniscus
-
femoral
ligament
(lig.meniscofemorale);
-
meniscus
ligament
-
tibia
(lig.meniscotibialis).
b) joint kneecap
(art.femoropatellaris)
femur-cup
- capsule ;
– - collateral ligament (lig. collaterale
joint, formed by the mediale et laterale);
kneecap and the femur block.
- direct patella ligaments (lig. patellae
rectum) – horse, cattle have three of
them, and the dog one. They start from
all corners of the patella and end at the
proximal tibial epiphysis.
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6) Tarsal joint (art.tarsi) –complex, - capsule, overall fibrous layer, and is
mixed. It includes four synovial divided into four synovial cavities,
joints:
which communicate with each other;
- collateral medial and lateral ligament
a) shin huckle joint;
(lig. collateralia medialis (lateralis)
b) intertarsal proximal;
longum et breve), which are divided
c) intertarsal distal;
into long and short.
d) tarsal - metatarsal.
- long plantar ligament (lig.plantarum
longum);
- dorsal tarsal ligament (lig. Tarsi
dorsale), starts from the talus and ends
at the center of the metatarsal bone III;
-
interordinary
ligaments
(lig.interseries);
-
interosseous
ligaments
(lig.interossea).
Picture 19. Left elbow joint of the horse (A – lateral and B medial aspects)
51
Picture 20. Short ligaments of the left corpus of the horse.
Picture 21. Ligaments of the left corpus of the dog.
52
Picture 22. Phalangeal joints of the left digital of the horse.
Picture 23. Ligaments of the left knee joint of the horse.
53
Picture 24. The right tarsus of the horse.
5. A list of questions on osteoarthrology
1. What anatomical planes and terms do you know?
2. What parts does the bone segment include?
3. Name the basic parts of a vertebra?
4. What parts does brisket consist of?
5. What features are typical for cervical vertebra?
6. What features are typical for thoracic vertebra?
7. What features are typical for lumbar vertebra?
8. Name the features of atlant and axis?
9. Name the key features of the last cervical and thoracic vertebra?
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10. Name the features of the lumbosacral of the body skeleton?
11. Name the features of the caudal vertebra?
12. Name the number of vertebra in each division of different kinds of animals?
13. Name the components of bone tissue of any bone?
14. What is the name of the bone which adjoins the cartilage?
15. What stages does the marrow go through in ontogenesis and phylogenesis?
16. What stages of development does the skeleton go through?
17. What features are typical for ordinary thoracic vertebra of cattle, horses, pigs and
dogs?
18. What is typical for sacral bones of cattle, horses, pigs and dogs and how many vertebra
does each kind possess?
19. What is the difference between brisket of domestic animals?
20. What parts does the bone rib consist of? What is the feature of the last bone rib?
21. What is the difference between the sternal rib and the asternal rib?
22. What section of the spinal column is the longest one?
23. What section of the spinal column is the most flexible?
24. What is the shape of the thorax of horses, cattle, pigs, dogs?
25. What bones form the input and output of the nasal cavity?
26. What bones form the bottom of the nasal cavity and the top of the oral cavity?
27. What bones form the side walls of the nasal cavity?
28. What bones form the bottom of the oral cavity?
29. What holes and channels do the bones of the cerebral part of the skull include?
30. What bones form the orbit?
31. What bones are located in the nasal cavity?
32. What bones are located in the oral cavity?
33. What holes and channels do the bones of the facial part of the skull include?
34. What anatomical parts does the Ethmoid bone include?
55
35. What sinuses are there on the skull? Name their specific and age features?
36. Name the features of the lower jaw in animals?
37. What sections are the limbs divided in?
38. Name the section of the limb, which connects the free limb with the trunk?
39. What bones make up the shoulder and the pelvic girdle?
40. How is the shoulder girdle connected with the trunk?
41. In what way does the pelvic girdle connect with the trunk?
42. On what basis can we compare scapula of animals?
43. What features differ the bones of the pelvis of animals?
44. What elements is the free limb divided on?
45. What are the differences between the humerus and the femur?
46. What bones of the zeugopodium are becoming rudimental?
47. Tell about the comparative-anatomical characteristics of the bones of the forearm
animals?
48. Tell about the comparative-anatomical characteristics of the bones of the leg animals?
49.What are the differences between the metacarpal bones of horses and cattle?
50. How many rays of autopodium do different kinds of animals have?
51. What types of connections of bones do you know and what is the difference among
them?
52. List the types of discontinuous connection type of bones?
53. In what way do the vertebral bodies, arcs, vertebra and sternum connect with rib
cartilage?
54. What ligaments connect the spinous processes of the vertebra, and what is the name of
this ligament on the neck?
55. How do the bones of the pelvis connect with the spinal column?
56. How do the bones of the skull and the pelvis connect with each other in young and
adult animals?
57. What are the long ligaments of the vertebral column?
58. What are the main components of the joint?
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59. What are the additional formations of the joint?
60. What way is the joint capsule formed in? What are its cavities filled with?
61.What joints does the glenoid lip have?
62. What joints does the articular disc have?
63. What joint does meniscus have?
64. What joints are distinguished by the type of the structure and the nature of movement
in them?
65. What are the ligaments of the inherent uniaxial joint?
66. What two groups of ligaments are inherent in the complex joint?
67.What universal joints do you know? What types of movement are possible in them and
what chords are there in them?
68. What biaxial joints do you know? What cords do they have and what types of moves
are possible in them?
69. What limb’s joints are there many ligaments in and why?
70. Name the uniaxial simple and complex joints and ligaments, linking them?
71. What mixed joints do you know?
72. Describe the elbow joint of ungulates and dogs?
73. Describe the knee joint of ungulates and dogs?
74. What way is scapula attached to the body in domestic animals?
75. What do you know about the hulless joints?
6.Bibliography
1. Akaevskii A.I., Udichev U.F., Seleznev S.B. The anatomy of the domestic animals. –
Moscow: Akvarium, 2009.
2. Hrustaleva I.V. et.al. The anatomy of the domestic animals.- Moscow: Koloss, 2000.
3. König H.E., Liebich H. G. Veterinary anatomy of domestic mammals.-Schattaeur, 2007.
4. Sisson S. The anatomy of the domestic animals. – Philadelphia: Saunders Company,
2014.
57
Contents:
Introduction
3
1. General osteology
4
1.1 Anatomical terminology
4
1.2 General characteristics of the skeleton
6
1.3 The structure of the bone as an organ
6
1.4 Classification of bones
7
1.5 Division of a skeleton into departments
8
2. Individual osteology
9
2.1 The axial skeleton
9
2.1.1 The Spine
9
2.1.2 Skull
15
2.2 Peripheral skeleton
22
2.2.1 The skeleton of the thoracic limb
23
2.2.2 The skeleton of the pelvic limb
30
3. General arthrology
37
3.1 Types of connections of bones
37
3.2 The structure of the joint
38
3.3 Classification of joints
40
3.4 General laws of arthrology
42
4. Private arthrology
43
4.1 Connection of the skull bones
43
4.2 Connection of the spinal column
43
58
4.3 Connection of bones thoracic limb
4.4 Connection of the pelvic limb bones
47
5. A list of questions on osteoarthrology
53
6. Bibliography
56
S.B. Seleznev
E.O. Starsteva
E.A. Krotova
Guidelines for the course
«The Anatomy of Domestic Animals: the Osteoarthrology»
For the students of 1-2 courses of Faculty of Agriculture in the specialty
«Veterinary medicine».