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Palette of Narmer
Old Kingdom (3,000 BCE)
Mudstone
• 
Form Choices
–  This sculpture serves as a historical record of events surrounding
Narmer’s conquest of lower Egypt.
–  The relief is divided into registers to denote the separate scenes of the
event, and the figures are depicted in hieratic scale to show their level
of importance.
–  Narmer is shown holding the head of one of his enemies while Horus,
the falcon god, mirrors this gesture while perched on a papyrus plant,
the symbol of Lower Egypt, demonstrating his support of Narmer.
–  Narmer wears the White Crown of Upper Egypt and has a bull’s tail tied
around his waist as a symbol of strength and power. His bare feet
symbolize a sacred event; the hero’s prophesied conquest over evil.
–  Hathor, the cow goddess, is also present in the upper most register,
demonstrating her support as well.
–  On the right, Narmer is shown wearing the Red Crown of Lower Egypt
and overseeing the battlefield; a sign of his victory and accession to the
throne of Lower Egypt, making him ruler of all Egypt. Below that, in the
larger register, the intertwined lion’s heads form the functional portion of
the palette and may also signify the unification of the two lands.
Palette of Narmer
Palette of Narmer (cont’d)
•  Content
–  Narmer conquers the armies of Lower Egypt under the
consent of the god Horus and the protection of the goddess
Hathor. Narmer is depicted wearing the crowns of both
Upper and Lower Egypt to show his complete dominion.
•  Context
–  This is an early example of pictograph (picture writing) that
uses symbols to tell an important story.
–  Narmer was the king of Upper Egypt and did conquer Lower
Egypt, being the first king to rule a unified Egypt and
therefore the first of what we would call the “pharaohs”.
–  Egyptian kings were considered divine and would use such
pictographs to demonstrate their power, authority and divinity
through these depictions of the gods watching over and
protecting them.
–  This was actually a palette used for makeup, the bowl of
which is between the lion’s necks.
Khafra
Old Kingdom (2,500 BCE)
Northosite Gneiss
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Form Choices
–  The seated figure conveys
permanence and stability
through his dignified and calm
look.
–  Khafra wears the traditional
pleated kilt and headdress of
the pharaoh which bears the
cobra, a symbol of the god Ra.
The god Horus, in the shape of
a falcon, cradles the back of his
head, symbolizing his divinity.
Khafra also wears the false
beard, symbolizing royalty.
–  The throne has a carved relief
of lions, symbols of power,
–  and the lotus and papyrus
plants, symbolizing his
dominance over Upper and
Lower Egypt.
–  The material, northosite gneiss,
is a stone that glows blue in
direct sunlight; blue was the
color of royalty in Ancient
Egypt.
Khafra (cont’d)
• 
• 
Content
–  The pharaoh
Khafra seated on
a throne, bearing
the symbols of
Upper and Lower
Egypt, supported
by the god Horus.
Context
–  Like all of the
pharaohs, Khafra
commissioned
sculptures of
himself to ensure
that his memory
would live on after
his death; another
demonstration of
divinity and
permanence.
–  A more famous
depiction of
Khafra is the
Great Sphinx
which bears his
face.
Menkaura & Queen
Old Kingdom (2,500 BCE)
Graywacke
•  Form Choices
–  The figures are connected in
stone and embrace; shows
love and a close relationship.
–  Their faces display dignity and
calm, coupled with their
balanced, one foot forward
stance, they convey stability
and permanence.
–  Menkaura wears the royal
garments (kilt, headdress, and
beard) and is depicted as
idealistically youthful and
athletic, suggesting virility.
–  The Queen is also depicted
as ideal and the sculptor
demonstrates his skill by
depicting her in a sheer
garment that reveals her
shapely figure underneath.
Menkaura & Queen (cont’d)
•  Content
–  Menkaura and his wife, the
queen, standing side by
side. The queen embraces
Menkaura while he holds
unknown objects in his
fists.
•  Context
–  Menkaura was the son of
Khafra, hence their similar
expressions and features.
–  The sculpture appears
unfinished in that it is not
completely polished; this
suggests that it may have
been made near the time
of his death.
Seated Scribe
Old Kingdom (2494-2345 BCE)
Painted Limestone
• 
Form Choices
–  The figure is depicted
upright, as attentive and
alert with relaxed
shoulders and arms
demonstrating the ideal
position of his
profession.
–  The calm, efficient
position also shows
dignity and relates the
skill of the scribe.
–  His body’s fleshy
appearance suggests
that his job was not
physically demanding
and he probably
enjoyed a good
lifestyle.
–  The irises of his eyes
are close together so
that they seem to follow
the viewer with a very
intelligent and
expectant expression.
Seated Scribe (cont’d)
•  Content
–  A scribe, seemingly
waiting for
information, holding
a pen and papyrus.
•  Context
–  Non-royal
sculptures tended
to be more lively
and realistic.
–  This sculpture was
found in the tomb
of the royal vizier,
Kai, and may be a
portrait of him.
Akhenaten and His Family
Amarna Period (1348-1336 BCE)
Painted limestone relief
•  Form Choices
–  This is an example of sunken relief, where the sculpture is
carved into the surface, which creates a more 3-dimensional
figure.
–  The pharaoh Akhenaten and his queen, Nefertiti, face each
other on an equal plane and the throne Nefertiti sits upon also
bears the symbol of unified Egypt, suggesting that she is a
potential co-ruler.
–  Akhenaten plays with one of his children while another caresses
Nefertiti’s face suggesting that this is a family-style portrait
rather than a traditional representation of the divine pharaoh.
–  The figures appear sickly, with distended stomachs and
elongated limbs suggesting a potentially life-like representation.
–  In the center at the top is the sun, or aten, which was the symbol
of god in the religion Akhenaten created. The rays of the aten
reach out like arms, the hands of which caress the hieroglyphs
in the center and hold ankhs to the noses of Akhenaten and
Nefertiti giving them the breath of life.
Akhenaten and His Family (cont’d)
•  Content
–  Akhenaten, Nefertiti and their 3 children basking in the rays of
their god, the Aten, and playing together.
•  Context
–  Akhenaten, whose name was originally Amenhotep IV,
completely altered the lifestyle and religion of Egypt during his
reign. His religion, which was monotheistic rather than the
traditional polytheistic Egyptian religion, focused on one allpowerful god which he called the Aten.
–  The Aten was symbolized by the sun and the religion held divine
truth as its primary belief.
–  Akhenaten moved the capital of Egypt from Thebes to a new
location where he built a city he called Akhetaten (present day
Tell el-Amarna) that included open-air temples that were open to
the public. He also changed his name, which means “One Who
is Effective on Behalf of Aten”, and took on the position of the
high priest of the religion.
Queen Tiye
Amarna Period (1352 BCE)
Boxwood, ebony, glass, silver, gold,
lapis lazuli, cloth, clay and wax
•  Form Choices
–  Realistic features:
heavy eyelids, pouting
lips, arched brows.
–  Her visage is serious,
formidable while also
calm and dignified,
conveying a
confrontational
elegance.
–  The original fine,
bejeweled headdress
was covered over to
emphasize her
humanity and venerate
her position as the
prior queen.
Queen Tiye
(cont’d)
• 
• 
Content
–  Bust of Queen Tiye, wife
of Amenhotep III and
mother of Akhenaten,
wearing a headdress.
Context
–  As mother of the pharaoh,
Akhenaten, she played a
role in affairs of state.
–  The sculpture was
originally done during the
reign of Amenhotep III and
depicted her in the form of
the goddess Isis, queen of
the gods. During
Akhenaten’s reign the
headdress was covered
over to discourage and
devalue the worship of the
many old gods. It helped
to draw reverence and
attention to her role as a
woman and a queen
rather than a goddess or
divine being.
Nefertiti
Amarna Period (1348-1336 BCE)
Painted Limestone
•  Form Choices
–  This is a realistic
representation according to
the features present; long
neck, smooth skin, make-up
and the subtle contours of
the face made evident
through the sculptor’s acute
attention to detail.
–  The color coordination of the
jewelry and headdress add
to the beauty of the figure
and help to depict the queen
at the height of her beauty;
traditional for royalty.
–  The exquisite beauty
coupled with the detached
expression reinforce the
lofty, semi-divine position
she occupies in society.
Nefertiti (cont’d)
•  Content
–  Bust of Queen Nefertiti in royal headdress and
necklace.
•  Context
–  Nefertiti’s beauty was well-known during her life, she
was referred to as “Fair of Face” and “Mistress of
Happiness” in certain writings; these help to suggest
that her features in this bust are not idealized.
–  This sculpture was found in a sculptor’s studio in
Akhetaten (modern day Tell el-Amarna) and may
have been a master model for other sculptures of the
queen or a piece of a larger sculpture.
Funerary Mask of Tutankhamun
New Kingdom (1336-1327 BCE)
Gold inlaid with glass and
semiprecious stones
•  Form Choices
–  The royal false beard
and headdress
identifies the pharaoh
with the symbols of the
cobra (Ra) and the
falcon (Horus)
representing his divine
nature.
–  Gold and semiprecious
stones are only used
for the pharaoh, who is
considered a living
god.
–  The full lips and thin
bridge of the nose
make this mask appear
realistic in its
representation,
suggesting the
influence of Amarna
style art.
Funerary Mask of
Tutankhamun (cont’d)
• 
Content
–  This funerary mask covered
the head and shoulders of
Tutankhamun’s mummy
inside the inner coffin.
–  It is intended to be an ideal
representation of his
likeness.
• 
Context
–  Tutankhamun was buried
in a tomb whose
anteroom contained
numerous treasures and
offerings.
–  The burial chamber itself
included three gilt wood
shrines that enclosed a
quartzite box that held
three nested coffins, the
innermost of which was
solid gold.
Funerary Mask of Tutankhamun
(cont’d)
• 
Context (cont’d)
–  The Egyptians believed that
the ka or spirit of the pharaoh
lived on after his death and
would lead, essentially, a
normal life. As such, they
believed they needed to
provide a new body to the
king and a coffin in his
likeness would serve well.
They also believed he would
want to pursue the same
hobbies and interests that he
had during his life so all of the
necessary equipment for
such activities was buried
with him, hence the large
quantity of objects found in
Tutankhamun’s tomb.
–  The Egyptians also believed
that providing a good burial
place for the king would
ensure a prosperous
civilization because it would
appease them eternally.
Inner Coffin of Tutankhamun’s Sarcophagus
New Kingdom (1336-1327 BCE)
Gold
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• 
Form Choices
–  The use of gold exclusively establishes the coffin as a royal and divine
vessel.
–  The coffin resembles the shape of a human figure but diminishes the notion
of an actual human body, this is to give the impression of a spiritual vessel.
–  The only human details present, the face and hands, are included solely in
reference to the pharaoh’s royalty and divinity. The head is adorned in
headdress and beard and the hands ceremoniously hold the crook and flail
above a relief of a vulture. These symbols serve to associate the pharaoh
with Osiris, the god if the underworld.
Content
–  also good resources for learning about some of the ancient Egyptian’s
rituals A coffin enclosing the body of Tutankhamun, bearing his likeness
and linking him to the gods with symbols and splendor.
Context
–  This is the inner-most of 3 coffins; this one actually held the mummy within
it. It represents the shape the king’s ka (spirit) would take on in the afterlife.
–  Tutankhamen was a minor king but his tomb remains the most intact that
has ever been discovered. The amount of finery and ceremony included in
his tomb is a good indicator of how devoted the Egyptians were even to a
minor king.
–  The contents of Tut’s tomb are good resources for some of the rituals the
ancient Egyptian’s had.
Stepped Pyramid of Djoser
Old Kingdom (2667-2648 BCE)
Limestone
Location: Saqqara
•  Form Choices
–  A series of mastabas stacked on top of one another in
diminishing sizes that creates a stepped appearance.
–  The number of mastabas (layers) used and the height of the
entire structure directly relate to the importance of the occupant
(more layers + taller structure=very important person)
–  The original structure had a final layer of polished limestone
(veneer) that gave it a smooth, shimmering appearance .
•  Content
–  Six stacked mastabas enclosing the tomb of King Djoser.
•  Context
–  This is the oldest known example of monumental Egyptian
architecture.
–  Its structure is supposed to act as a stairway to heaven and the
realm of the god Ra.
–  The funerary complex at Saqqara bears the name of the earliest
known architect, Imhotep.
Great Pyramids
Old Kingdom (2601-2515 BCE)
Limestone
Location: Giza
•  Form Choices
–  Square pyramidal structures that originally were
finished in a limestone veneer to create a smooth and
shimmering effect.
–  Perfectly oriented to the points of the compass to
convey balance and perfection.
–  Situated on the west bank of the Nile as it relates to
death and the afterlife.
–  The sloped shape is thought to represent the rays of
the sun ascending to the realm of Ra and represents
the pharaoh’s desire to be seen as a divine figure that
has a lasting and permanent influence over the land
and culture.
Great Pyramids (cont’d)
•  Content
–  Monumental pyramid shaped tombs for three of Egypt’s Old
Kingdom pharaohs: the largest for Khufu, the second largest for
Kharfa and the smallest for Menkaura.
•  Context
–  The pyramids are known as: “Horizon if Khufu”, “Great is Khafra”
and “Divine is Menkaura”.
–  Khufu, Khafra and Menkaura were successive rulers during
Egypt’s 4th dynasty—grandfather, father and son—this may
account for the reason why they get progressively smaller as the
son did not want to anger the father by outstripping him.
–  The pyramids were the final destination and resting place of the
pharaohs, the place where they would live out eternity.
–  All three of the pyramids have been looted since their
completion.
–  They were each constructed of limestone blocks, quarried
locally, that weigh 2.5 tons each. Khufu’s pyramid stands 450’
tall.
“Horizon of Khufu”
“Great is Khafra”
“Divine is Menkaura”
Hypostyle Hall
New Kingdom (1294-1213 BCE)
Location: Temple of Amun, Karnak
•  Form Choices
–  A courtyard of colossal columns within a temple complex
bearing relief sculptures that tell stories of the gods; a clear
reference to the presence of a higher power.
–  The sheer size, number and proximity of the columns is meant
to create a seemingly vast and infinite space; a place of the
gods.
–  The capitals (tops) of the columns are carved into the shape of
lotuses; shorter columns are carved into lotus buds while the
largest columns are carved into lotus blossoms. These are
symbols of life and the power of the king.
•  Content
–  Hall of the Temple complex of Amun in Karnak. It consists of
134 columns set in a grid-like pattern covering and area 170’
long by 340’ wide. The shorter columns are 36’ tall while the
larger columns are 66’ tall and 12’ in diameter. The relief
sculptures on the columns tell stories of gods and kings.
Hypostyle Hall (cont’d)
•  Context
–  This Temple complex of Amun was built by Sety I and
Rameses II. It was called the “Temple of the Spirit of
Sety, Beloved of Ptah, in the House of Amun”.
–  The hall served as an outer courtyard and was the
furthest that any common person could go into the
temple complex. The rest of the complex was the
sanctuary of the priests and only they were allowed
there. It was their job to attend to the gods by
dressing and feeding the statues of the gods daily.
–  Amun was the dominant god during this time in the
capital of Thebes and the temple complex was the
place of worship to him.
Temple of Rameses II
New Kingdom (1279-1219 BCE)
Location: Abu Simbel
•  Form Choices
–  The façade of the temple is cut into the cliff face, leaving 4
colossal statues of Rameses as sentries to reaffirm his power
and dominance.
–  The temple entrance is situated such that it is naturally
illuminated by the sun.
–  The construction of the temple itself conveys permanence and
stability and establishes Rameses’ vitality and divinity.
–  Inside there are statues of other major gods such as Ra, Osiris,
Ptah and Amun; the fact that sculptures of Ramses are found
alongside these portray him as an equal among the gods.
–  At the feet of each of the colossal statues are smaller statues
representing members of Rameses’ family, this establishes their
importance but also depicts them as lesser beings and subjects
of Rameses.
Temple of Rameses II
(cont’d)
•  Content
–  4 colossal statues of the pharaoh Ramses II stand 65’ tall and
guard the entrance to a temple built in reverence of and respect
for him.
–  Inside there are 8 statues of Osiris that bear the head of
Rameses along with other statues of Rameses himself and the
gods Ptah, Amun and Ra.
•  Context
–  Rameses ruled for 66 years.
–  This temple, as well as Nefertari’s and those at Karnak and
Luxor, was the first colossal architecture to appear in Egypt’s
history after the completion of the great pyramids during the Old
Kingdom.
–  Abu Simbel is in Nubia, a rich country in southern Egypt. The
temple’s existence serves as an examples of the far-reaching
influence held by the pharaoh.
–  In order to thrive and protect Egypt, Rameses made a pact with
the Hittites.
–  Rameses II had nearly 100 children.