Download THE 1848 LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE The period 1848

THE 1848 LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS IN EUROPE
The period 1848-49 was one of the wide spread revolutions in Europe. It was the second wave of
general revolutions on the content of Europe following the 1830 revolutions which had occurred
in France, Belgium, Italy, Poland etc. The revolutionary fever was not cured and therefore the
1848 revolutions were continuation of the 1830 revolutions. The 1848 revolutions were first
witnessed in Italy and France and then spread to the German states, Austria, Hungary e.t.c
General Causes of the 1848-49 Revolutions
The 1848 revolutions were reactions against the Vienna settlement of 1815. The states men at
Vienna made mistakes in their attempt to create lasting peace in Europe. e.g they divided up the
small states among the big powers. Austria took large parts of Italy and German states, Russia
took the Grand Duchy of Warsaw. All this was done against the interest of the small states which
then revolted in 1848 in order to throw off the burden of foreign domination imposed by the
Vienna Settlement of 1815.
In some areas, the revolutions were against dictatorial regimes. The great powers which ruled the
small states were harsh e.g in the areas under the Austrian empire; Metternich used his iron hand
of brutality to suppress any wave of Liberalism and Nationalist and to punish opponents by
either imprisonment or death. The masses were also demanding for voting rights, freedom of
speech e.t.c. It’s such conditions that made European masses to demand for political reforms
hence revolutions in France and the Austrian empire.
The desire to end the inefficiency of the existing governments in Europe led to revolutions in
Europe. For example, in Austria and France, the leaders were corrupt and did not address the
prevailing socio-economic problems especially unemployment and the suffering of masses. This
therefore inspired the masses to rise up against the inefficient regimes/governments of Europe.
The success of the 1830 Belgian revolution also inspired the out break of the 1848 liberal
revolutions through out central Europe. The Belgians had achieved their independence after
rising up against the Dutch rule imposed on them by the Vienna Settlement of 1815 which
inspired the rise of similar forces in central Europe as the dominated nationalities also wished to
regain their political freedom and this led to revolutions in Hungary and the Italian states in
1848.
The 1848 aimed at national unification and independence. This was more pronounced in the
Italian and German states which were under foreign rule and even before they had been under the
Napoleonic rule. Their hopes for unification had been shattered by the Vienna settlement of 1815
that put them under Austrian rule. It’s therefore clear that the desire for unification led to the out
break of liberal revolutions in Europe in 1848.
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The effect of high population growth rates in Europe by 1848 and the existing governments’
failure to plan for such population trends caused the 11848 revolutions. The high population
growth rates resulted into urban congestion, food shortages, unemployment, and development of
slums e.t.c. When the government of Europe at that time failed to address such challenges, the
masses were annoyed and consequently rose up in revolutions as in France, Austria and the
Italian states.
The 1848 revolutions were aimed at over throwing governments which were not pro-people and
to obtain governments which would serve the interest of the people e.g. The French wanted a
King who would keep the achievements of Napoleon I and who would promote the glory of
France in Europe. Unfortunately, Louis Philippe’s government had policies which catered for the
interests of the big powers not the French people. There fore since the French were used to
revolutions, they did not just sit and watch but organized the hence the 1848 revolution.
The effects of the industrial revolution in Europe led to the 1848 revolutions. The industrial
revolution created two conflicting classes e.g. the working class which suffered poor
accommodation, long working hours and exploitation and the middle class which owned industry
and factories and supported oppressive governments. This led to the formation of trade unions or
workers movements which organized the 1848 revolutions for example in France and Prussia.
The effects of bad weather of 1847-48 and the economic depression of 1843-47. All these caused
unemployment giving rise to jobless masses in Europe. The poor harvests led to increased food
shortages, inflation and starvation between 1847 and 48. When the existing government gave no
practical solutions, the masses rose up in revolt in 1848.
The existence of the Metternich system which was not only in Austria but also in other parts of
Europe explains the outbreak of the 1848 liberal revolutions in Europe. The Metternich system
had censorship of the press, a tight spy network and police machinery which violated the liberties
of the masses. By 1848, the Metternich could no longer be tolerated as the masses were fed up,
hence the out break of revolutions in Europe.
The rise of socialist and republication ideologies since the 1830s contributed to revolutions. By
1848, socialism and republicanism had emerged in Europe. In France socialism was spear
headed by Louis Blanc and it advocated for people’s right to vote and for the state ownership of
industry. On the other hand, Republicanism under Lamartine demanded for peoples’
involvement in making their own laws. With such ideologies, the oppressed workers and
peasants were encouraged to rise up in revolutions in 1848.
The break of epidemic diseases like cholera and typhoid forced the masses to rise up in
revolutions. Such diseases affected the poor masses of central Europe causing arise in death
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rates. The urban working class with their poor hygiene in the working environment, coupled with
the existing governments’ failure to provide for medical facilities, the outbreak of revolutions in
1848 became inevitable.
Some of the 1848 revolutions were sparked off by the success of revolutions in other countries. It
should be noted that of all the 1848 revolutions, it is only the French revolution of 1848 that over
throw Louis Philippe and then became a guiding factor in the out break of revolutions else
where. The success of the French revolution morale boosted the European masses in other
countries to rise up in revolt in 1848.
Thee emergence of intellectuals led to the 1848 revolutions. These included professors in
universalities, students, Journalists, teachers, bankers etc. These people encouraged the peasants
to rise up against the existing governments e.g there were people like Louis Blanc and Lamartine
in France, Giuseppe Mazzini in Italy and Louis Kossuth in Hungary who inspired the outbreak
of revolutions in Europe.
The collapse of the congress system caused the 1848 revolutions. This system had been used as a
suppressive instrument against revolutions in Europe. However, when it collapsed, there was no
more check against revolutionaries and this encouraged them to organize the 1848 revolutions in
Europe.
The fall of Metternich in 1848 encouraged revolutions in other countries especially in the Italian
and German states. The fact that the one who used to crush revolutions was no more, the
revolutionaries would then rise up without fear hence the occurrence of the 1848 revolutions.
Effects of the 1848 Revolutions in Europe
There was great loss of life and property especially in the Italian and German states where the
Austria army sought to establish its dominance.
The revolutions marked an end of Prince Metternich and his system in the politics of Europe.
In France, the revolutions marked the over throw of Louis Philippe and the end of the Orleans
monarchy. This paved way for the establishment of the Second French Republic and later
Empire under Louis Napoleon Bonaparte III who ruled until the 1870 Franco-Prussian.
With the out break of the 1848 Liberal revolutions in Europe, new personalities also exploited
the confusion to rise to power from the 1850’s. These used their positions to unity their states. In
Italy, there was count Camillo de Cavour and in Prussia, there was Otto Von Bismarck.
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The 1848 revolutions were successful in France and Milan but in Austria and Prussia, the
revolutions were short lived as the despots re-asserted their power.
Serfdom was abolished in the Austrian empire and in the German states.
Since socialism was instrumental in causing the 1848 liberal revolutions socialist movements
became strong there attar.
After the 1848 Liberal revolutions Europe under went period of reconstruction and rehabilitation
of the infrastructures destroyed during the revolutions. These socio-economic reforms were
carried out by Napoleon III in France, Cavour in piedmont and Bismarck in Prussia.
The out break of these revolutions strengthened the nationalist and liberal movements in Europe
leading to the political unification of Italy and Germany in the period 1870-71.
In areas where the revolutions failed, revenge was done against the revolutionary leaders e.g in
Hungary and Austria, parliamentary structures were destroyed and the liberals were either
imprisoned or exiled.
Great lessons were leant even if some revolutions failed, e.g in Italy, there began a unification
struggle under the leadership of Cavour, in Prussia, Bismarck assured the parliament that the
great question of German unification could not be answered by votes of the majority as was the
blunder with the 1848 revolutions, but by blood and iron. Even the despots realized that they
could not take their subjects for granted.
THE 1848 LIBERAL REVOLTS IN THE ITALIAN STATES
The Italian states did not escape the revolutionary wave of 1848. Revolutions occurred in Naples,
Sicily, Milan, Venice, Rome etc. The Italians were specifically demanding for their unification
and independence. However, the revolutions turned out to be abortive because Napoleon III of
France intervened, suppressed the revolutionaries and restored the Pope to his position. The
Austrian army also came in, moved south and crushed the revolutionaries.
Causes of the 1848 Revolutions in Italian States.
The rise of nationalism led to the 1848 Italian revolts. Since the days of Napoleon and the French
revolution (the Italian company) a revolutionary spirit was created in Italy. Napoleon I had
spread the revolutionary ideologies in Italy and as a result, in 1848, the Italians rose up in
demand for independence from the Austrian rule.
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The mistakes of the Vienna settlement of 1815 led to the 1848 Italian revolts. During the Vienna
Settlement especially on the principle of balance of power, the Italian states were put under
Austrian control and yet they had been under French control. This was direct erosion of
independence and by 1848, the revolutions were inevitable
The desire for constitutional governance caused the 1848 revolutions in the Italian states. In the
Papal States, Piedmont, Naples and Sicily and in Tuscany, the masses rose up in 1848 because
they wanted constitutions and not the authority of Kings and Popes.
The Italian revolutions were reactions against the Metternich system. Metternich had established
a tight spy net work and police machinery, suppressing the liberal and nationalist leaders in the
Italian states.
Therefore the desires for freedom from the Metternich system led to the out break of the 1848
revolutions in the Italian States.
The desire for national unification led to the outbreak of revolutions in Italy. Leading Italian
nationalists like Mazzini and Garibaldi wanted to create one big Italy out of those Italian states
scattered politically by the Vienna Settlement of 1815.
The determination of the nationalists and the secret movements caused the 1848 revolutions in
Italy. Nationalists like Giuseppe Garibaldi and Mazzini together with their followers were
determined to fight for the common objective of expelling Austria out of Italy.
The poor harvests caused by the bad weather of 1847-48 sparked off revolutions in Italy. The
poor harvests coincided with a potato disease which destroyed potato crops and yet potatoes
were the staple food in Southern Italy. This led to famine and increased prices yet the
governments in power paid no attention leading to demonstrations and finally revolutions in
18448.
Despotism in the Italian states also caused the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions. Leaders like
Victor Emmanuel I of Piedmont, Ferdinand I of Naples etc were despotic leaders whom the
revolutionaries wanted to over throw.
The out break of epidemic diseases such as cholera and typhoid caused the revolutions in the
Italian states, more so when the concerned governments paid no attention.
The privileged system of the Nobles also led to the outbreak of revolutions in the Italian States.
Majority of the Italian peasants were poor. There was also over taxation of the peasants and
forced labor in favor of the Nobles. This caused hatred between the peasants and the nobles
which sparked off the revolutions in Italy.
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The influence of the liberal Pope Pius IX and King Charles Albert of Piedmont created
revolutionary feelings among the Italians. Even Prince Metternich commented over the Pope’s
liberal position as “now half dissolving to a liberal thaw” and that “We are prepared for anything
except a liberal pope.” Many Italians began to look at the Pope and the King of Piedmont for
leadership in the unification struggle hence inspiring them to rise up in 1848.
A part from the revolution in Milan that took place in Jan 1848, the other revolutions in the
Italian states were inspired and morale boosted by the Feb 1848 revolution in France. The French
revolution of 1848 acted as an example to the rest of European liberals and nationalist, hence the
saying that “When France sneezes, Europe catches a cold.”
Why the 1848 Revolution in Italy Failed
Military weakness led to the failure of revolutions. Like in the 1830 revolutions, by 1848 the
Italians still lacked a strong, trained, organized and equipped army to challenge the might of
Austria. In Naples and Sicily, Ferdinand I was able to re-assert himself as a ruler. In Lombardy,
Austrian rule was restored when the Austrian forces crushed the revolutionaries.
The intervention of foreign powers led to the failure of revolutions in Italy eg the French
assistance given to the Pope against the revolutionaries led to the failure of the revolution in the
Papal States.
Disunity among the nationalists caused the failure of the revolutions. The 1848 revolutions in
Italy failed because the revolutionaries were not united and could not come to each other’s
rescue except Charles Albert of Piedmont who assisted Lombardy and Naples. It should be noted
that Pope Pius IX who had initially offered assistance to Lombardy against Austria later
withdrew his assistance because he saw it unthinkable to draw swords against a Catholic state.
Therefore, the failure of the revolutionary states to combine forces against Austria led to the
failure of the revolutions.
The lack of mass support from the rural areas also led to the failure of the 1848 revolutions in the
Italian States. Although by 1848, he Italian nationalists had tried to spread the revolutionary
message, a big portion of the Italian peasantry was less informed about the cause of the Italian
independence and unification. This is indicated by the fact that the revolutions were centered in
cities such as Milan, Venice and Rome, hence their failure.
Ideological differences between Republicans and Monarchists led to the failure of the
revolutions. The republicans wanted a state with a president and a constitution while the
monarchists wanted kings with divine powers. With such differences, the revolutionaries could
not come together to overthrow Austria and forge unity respectively.
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The revolutions in Italy were also scattered in nature which made it easy for the Austrian forces
to defeat them one after another.
Economic backwardness led to the collapse of revolutions in Italy. The Italian states lacked
strong economies that could help to finance the struggle against Austria.
The outbreak of epidemic diseases like cholera and typhoid in the Southern Italian states also
reduced the strength of the Italian revolutionaries making it impossible for them to succeed.
The failure of the 1848 Austrian revolution meant disaster for the Italian revolutionaries. The
failure saved many Austrian forces which were now turned against the Italians leading to their
defeat and failure.
The Revolutionaries lacked proper leadership which caused their failure. They were led by
intellectuals who were usually briefcase and fair-weather revolutionaries without any skill of
fighting hence the failure of the revolutions.
The lack of foreign assistance was a major cause for the failure of Italian revolts. Some Italian
states revolted due to the morale boosting effect of the success of the French revolution of Feb
1848. They expected support from France which wasn’t forth coming hence the collapse of
revolutions.
THE 1848 LIBERAL REVOLUTIONS IN THE GERMAN STATES (PRUSSIA)
The German states, like Italian states had for a long time been denied freedom. In the Vienna
Congress of 1815, the 39 German states except Prussia were placed under Austrian foreign rule
against their will. In March 1848, revolutions broke out in the German states of Bavaria, Saxony,
Baden, Hanover etc. However, the most important revolution broke out in Berlin (Prussia)
between 13th and 18th March 1848.
Causes
The oppressive Metternich system led to the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in the German
states. Metternich had destroyed people’s liberties by establishing a spy network and a police
machinery to deal with liberal and nationalists revolts in Germany. This led to the outbreak of
revolutions in the German states in 1848.
The inspiration and leadership of King Fredrick William IV of Prussia who came to power in
1840. He appeared to be an enlightened despot and he was tolerant to liberal views and not afraid
of Metternich. He even granted a constitution which Fredrick William III had refused to grant to
the Prussians for fear of Austria. In 1847, he called for a Prussian parliament in which he
encouraged the liberals to demand for more reforms and a united Germany instead of a loose
confederation. This inspired the Germany liberals to organize a revolt in 1848.
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The role of German elites or intellectuals eg Lawyers, Doctors, Teachers, Journalists and
Professors led to the outbreak of revolutions. They were tired of unemployment since the senior
government posts were given to the Nobles who owned land hence instigating them to stage the
revolts of 1848.
The revolutions were also a reaction against the mistakes of the Vienna settlement of 1815. Eg
they hated despotic rulers who were imposed over the German states as well as the handing over
the German states to Austrian rule which generated the desire for independence.
The rapid population growth in the German states caused the revolutions of 1848. By 1848, the
German population had grown up to 36 million yet the governments failed to plan for such a
high population. As a result, there were rising levels of unemployment which finally sparked off
revolutions in 1848 in the German confederation.
The poor harvests of 1847-48 which were caused by the bad weather led to starvation and high
food prices. The failure of the governments to deal with these problems caused the revolutions of
1848 in the German states.
The inspiration from the Feb 1848 revolutions in France. The success of the French revolutions
of February 1848 which overthrew Louis Philippe encouraged the liberals in all the German
states to start demanding for a change in government hence revolts.
The fall of Metternich encouraged the outbreak of revolutions in the German states. When the
news of Metternich’s downfall in Austria reached Prussia, the liberals staged a revolt in Berlin,
the capital city of Prussia because the one who would suppress them was now out of office.
The Impact of the 1789 French revolution and the reign of Napoleon had sawn the seeds of
liberalism and nationalism had a clue on the outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in the German
confederation.
Reasons for the Failure of the 1848 in the German States (Prussia)
The disunity among the revolutionaries led to their failure. They had different interests; while
working class was demanding for the rights of trade unions, the republicans opposed it on the
other hand. They feared that the middle class would dominate the political stage of German. As
they remained divided, the Austrian forces were able to crush them by 1849.
The lack of proper leadership caused the failure of revolutions. The revolutionaries had put all
their confidence in King Fredrick William IV of Prussia to promote their demands since he was
expected to be the emperor of a United Germany. However, the King disappointed them when he
renounced them and refused to work with them leading to their suppression.
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The revolutionaries lacked a strong army that could challenge Austria and this led to the collapse
of revolutions. Worse still, the King of Prussia even decided to use the Prussian army to suppress
the German revolutionaries leading to their failure.
The revolutions were led by intellectuals/elites which also led to their failure. Apart from being
arrogant over the lower people, they lacked any element of practicability. Instead of using
military weapons, they spent most of the time in unproductive debates making long speeches
which made Austria defeat them.
The lack of foreign assistance led to the failure of the liberals and nationalists in the German
revolutions of 1848.
The spread of epidemic diseases also weakened the German revolutionaries leading to the
collapse of the revolutions.
The failure of revolutions else where demoralized the German revolutionaries. By November
1848, the revolutions had collapsed almost every where in Europe e.g. in Austria, the army had
defeated the revolutionaries, and in Italy, they were facing many problems. The Germans
therefore abandoned the struggle after learning of the failures in other places.
THE 1848 REVOLUTIONS IN HUNGARY
Hungary was part of the Austrian empire and consisted of different races like Magyars who were
the majority. The Croats, the Rumania, the Slavs etc. When the news of revolutionary success in
France reached Hungary, a revolt broke out. The revolution was organized by the peasant
Magyars and the Croats led by a liberal journalist called Louis Kossuth.
Causes of the Revolution
The desire for independence caused the 1848 revolutions in Hungary. The Hungarians wanted to
overthrow the Austrian foreign rule which dominated their national affairs. Therefore, the
revolution was inspired by the rise of nationalism among the Hungarian people.
The revolution was a reaction against the oppressive Metternich system. Metternich had set up
tight spy network and police machinery which imprisoned and deported the Hungarian
nationalists and liberals hence forcing them to rise up in a revolt in 1848.
They also hated the worsening socio-economic conditions like poor living conditions,
unemployment and yet the government paid no attention to the people’s desires.
The desire for liberal reforms/democracy caused the revolution. The Hungarians wanted equality
of all classes before the law, freedom of press, freedom of association, freedom of speech etc.
The failure of Metternich to comply with the demands led to the revolt of 1849.
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There was a desire to use the mother language ie Magyar in the Parliament and in all state affairs
as the official language, they reacted against the German languages imposed on them by
Metternich.
The role of intellectuals/elites who mobilized the Hungarians against the Austrian government.
The most prominent elite was Louis Kossuth.
The news of revolutionary success in Italy and France inspired the Hungarians to take action
against Austria and to declare the independence of Hungary.
In March 1848, Hungary was declared a republic and Louis Kossuth became its first President.
However, this independence was short lived because Austria requested for assistance from
Russia which was used to suppress the Hungarians by 1848.
Causes of the Failure of the 1848 Hungarian Revolt
The strength of the Austrian forces led to the failure of the Hungarian revolt. After crushing the
Italian revolutions, the Austrian army moved to Hungary. Louis Kossuth the leader didn’t have a
strong army to withstand the Austrian forces and as a result the revolution boomerang/ backfired.
There was disunity among the Hungarians which caused the collapse of their revolution. The
Magyars behaved in a superior way over the Croats yet they were fighting a common enemy
(Austria). This made the Croats join Austria to crush the Magyars hence failure of the revolution.
The revolution was centered in Budapest, the capital city and it didn’t have wide spread of
support. Therefore, there was a gap between the urban and rural people which made it easy for
Austria to crush the revolution.
The foreign support of Tsar Nicholas I of Russia to Austria against the Hungarians strengthened
the Austrian forces and enabled them to crush the Hungarian revolt.
The successful suppression of revolutions in Italy by the Austrians saved more Austrian
resources which were now used to crush the Hungarian rebels by 1849.
There was poor leadership which led to the collapse of the Hungarian revolt. The Hungarian
revolt was led by elites who didn’t go down to the grassroots to involve the peasants who were
the majority.
The lack of foreign support made the revolution in Hungary fail. Because of the outbreak of
revolutions else where in Europe, Hungary did not get foreign assistance for its revolution hence
its failure.
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THE 1848 REVOLUTION IN AUSTRIA
The revolutionary wave that existed in France and Hungary also affected Austria respectively.
The revolution was led by University professors and students from Vienna University. It was
carried out on 12th March 1848 when the revolutionaries matched to the Emperors palace
demanding that the emperor dismisses Metternich.
Causes of the 1848 in Austria
The dictatorship in the government led to the revolution in Vienna. Austria had a despotic
emperor with all the political power in his hands. The liberals in Austria therefore wanted
reforms in the government and this resulted into the 1848 revolution.
The poor economic situation by 1848 led to the revolution. The Austrian Empire was bankrupt
due to the extravagancy of the Royal family. Also the poor economic policy of the emperor kept
the Austrian industrial or trade systems backward compared to other countries. Taxes /duties on
goods were high which the merchants could not tolerate hence the revolution.
The Metternich system also caused the 1848 revolution in Austria. By 1848, the liberals in
Austria were fed up with Metternich who used interfere in their freedom. He for example
censored the press, banned the teaching of liberal subjects like history and literature. It was
therefore necessary to remove Metternich from power but this could only be possible by means
of revolution.
The privileged position of the nobility and or aristocracy led to the revolution. The liberals hated
the political system where the nobles had a lot of privileges, for example they were given the top
government posts. They were also exempted from taxation and compulsory military service. The
middle class and the liberals therefore rose up against such inequality.
The influence of the intellectuals led to the revolution in Austria. The revolution started among
the university professors and students in Vienna. These were demanding for a democratic change
in Austria.
Religious intolerance also led to the revolution. In Austria, only the Catholics were allowed to
hold public offices. This annoyed the Protestants and the orthodox Christians. Therefore the
desire for freedom of worship and equality in employment caused the 1848 revolution in Austria.
The bad weather which affected crop production in 1847 caused the revolution. This caused food
shortages yet the Austrian government provided no practical solution to the problem hence
instigating the masses to rise up in the revolution of 1848.
The out break of epidemic diseases like cholera and typhoid also increased the hatred of the
masses against the Austrian government leading to the outbreak of a revolution in 1848.
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The influence of revolutionary success else where led to the outbreak of the Austrian revolution
of 1848. This success of the revolution in Milan (Italy), the initial success of the Hungarian
revolt and the complete success of the French revolution motivated the Austrian Masses in
staging a revolt in Vienna 1848.
Om the 12th March 1848, University students, Lecturers and Professors were joined up by the
liberal Journalists and peasants and stormed the Royal palace demanding that emperor dismisses
Metternich. On 13th March 1848, Metternich had no option but to resign, forged a passport in the
name of Mr. Smith and escaped to England, marking the end of his era.
In short therefore, success was registered immediately because Metternich the most hated figure
was overthrown and the emperor made some reforms. However, this success was shot lived
because after a few months, the revolutionaries were crushed.
Reasons for the Failure of the 1848 Revolutions in Austria
Disunity among the revolutionaries led to the collapse of the revolution. The middle class
members or merchants were not willing to cooperate with the workers hence the revolution had
to fail.
The Austrian revolution also failed because it was urban based. It took place in Vienna and the
rural masses were not involved
The military weakness of the revolutionaries led to the defeat and failure of the revolution. These
rebels were weak and could not manage the government forces.
The emperor himself used the policy of divide and rule which increased the divisionism among
the revolutionaries; for example Slavs opposed the Germans in Parliament and in such conflicts,
the revolutionaries could not achieve a break through.
The revolutionaries in Vienna lacked foreign support which led to their failure. They had
expected France and other states that were opposed to the Metternich system to come to their
rescue but this could not happen hence revolutionary failure.
The suppression of the revolutions in Italy and Hungry by the Austrian army left the Austrian
government with more troops which the emperor then used to crush the rebels at home leading to
the failure of the revolution.
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Common characteristics/Features of the 1848 revolutions in Europe
They were all inspired by the common desire to destroy the bad arrangements of the Vienna
settlement of 1815 e.g it had imposed foreign domination over many states like the Italian and
German states against their will.
They were all Liberal and nationalistic in nature. E.g in France, they demanded for the
expansion of the franchise, in the Austrian empire, the revolutionaries were tied of the
Metternich system which had denied them liberty, in the Italian and German states; there was a
common desire for national unification and independence.
They were led by intellectuals like university students, professors and lectures. In Hungary,
Louis Kossuth a journalist was very vital in the struggle, in France, there was Louis Blanc and
Lamartine while in the Italian states, the revolutions were led by the intellectual Mazzini.
They all originated from urban centre’s e.g in Paris in France, Vienna in Austria, Berlin in
Prussia, Rome in Italy and Budapest in Hungry. This indicated that the revolutionaries had little
touch with the rural people.
The revolutionaries were all divided as regards the means to achieve their goals. In Italy e.g
some nationalists wanted a united Italy under the Pope; others preferred a republic under Mazzini
while others preferred a constitutional monarchy under the King of Piedmont.
All the revolutions took place in the less industrialized states of Europe such as the Italian and
German states, France, Hungary etc. This explains why the problem of poor harvests which
affected central Europe became a common feature in sparking off revolutions in the agricultural
states of Europe at that time.
All the revolutions lacked support from their domestic armies except in France. This happened
because the intellectuals who led these revolutions ignored the need to ally with state armies
claiming that they were dangerous e.g Giuseppe Mazzini in the Italian states.
All the revolutionaries were confused and lacked clear and proper leadership to carry out the
struggle. In many states, the revolutionary leaders did not co-ordinate their activities with other
fighters e.g in Italy, by the time the revolution started, Mazzini was in London. In other areas, the
leaders betrayed the revolutions.
All the revolutions took place at the same time i.e 1848-49 with the news of success from one
state sparking revolutions in other states. E.g the revolutionary success in Italy and France
sparked off revolutions in Hungary and Austria.
All the 1848 revolutions had their immediate causes as; The effects of bad weather of 1847-48,
epidemic diseases and the economic depression which led to poor living conditions and un
employment.
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All these revolutions except in France failed e.g all the revolutions in the Austrian empire were
defeated one by one by the Austrian army. Though the revolutions happened to register
immediate success like constitutions which were granted in Sicily and Naples and Prussia and
the independence which was declared in Hungary, the revolutionaries were soon suppressed.
All the classes of European society took part in the 1848-49 revolutions since each had its own
grievances e.g the socialists, liberal workers, republicans and intellectuals.
All the revolutions gave a lesson that military preparedness was necessary for future success; for
example in the Italian states, Piedmont strengthened her army and solicited for foreign assistance
which helped in the attainment of the Italian unification in 1870. In Germany, Bismarck and
King William I with the assistance Field Marshals Helmuth Von Moltke and Albreich Von Roon
strengthened the Prussian army giving Prussia victory in her unification of Germany by defeating
Denmark in 1864, expelling Austrian from Germany after the Austro-Prussian war of 1866 and
destroying the power of France in the Franco -Prussian war of 1870-71. This war left Germany
united under Prussia and France heart broken.
All the revolutions of 1848 except in Sicily were inspired by the example of the Feb 1848
revolution in France.
The outbreak of these revolutions led to social and economic reforms in the countries where they
occurred e.g in most of the states where the 1848 revolution took place, serfdom was abolished.
All the 1848 revolutions led to the destruction of property and important infrastructures in the
countries where they occurred.
Most of the revolutions led to the emergence of new personalities in European political history;
E.g Cavour became Prime Minister in Piedmont and Bismarck became Chancellor of Prussia.
These personalities became state-makers in their respective states.
General reasons why the failure of the 1848 revolutions in Europe
Except in France, the rest of the 1848 revolutions failed and this was attributed to the following
factors.
Disunity and lack of co-ordination among the revolutionaries led to the failure of the revolutions.
In Hungary and the Italian states for example, there were divisions among the political groups
e.g the republicans were against the monarchists, the middle class was against the working class
hence undermining their strength.
The military weakness of the revolutionaries compared to those forces they were fighting e.g the
Italians were weak compared to the Austrian forces and this brought about the failure of the
revolutions.
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The lack of effective mobilization of the masses led to the failure of the revolutions. Most of the
revolutions occurred in towns and left out the rural masses.
In addition, the awareness of the people about the purpose of the revolutions was not there
because many of the political movements or groups which would have done this were operating
under ground.
The intervention of foreign powers in the internal affairs of the states which were under going
revolutions contributed to the failure of such revolutions because the revolutionaries could not
cope up with the opposing forces e.g the French intervention in the Papal states doomed the
revolutions and the Russian intervention in Hungary also led to the failure of the Hungarian
revolution.
The occurrence of epidemic diseases led to the failure of the revolutions. The period 1844-48
witnessed wide spread of epidemic diseases. This left behind heavy death tolls and physical
disability which reduced the strength and determination of the revolutionaries.
The lack of proper leadership in all the revolutions led to their failure. They were led by
intellectuals/elites who were not actual or proper revolutionaries. They only performed well in
debates but not in armed action, hence revolutionary failure.
The lack of military assistance also contributed to the failure of the revolutions. Almost all the
revolutions did not have strong revolutionary armies of their own. They were therefore defeated
by the strong domestic suppressors.
Nationalism which was an important cause of the revolutions was not yet wide spread. The
selfish interests of the various states together with their princes were still very strong.
The 1848 revolutions lacked support from their domestic armies which would have been
important if they were to succeed. As a result, the revolutionaries were easily suppressed by their
domestic armies like in Germany and Austria except in France.
The revolutions also failed because towards the end of 1848, the economic depression and poor
harvests were coming to an end. By this time, most governments had effectively tried to solve
problems like unemployment and high food prices. Therefore, the revolutionaries saw no reason
of continuing to fight.
The partial success registered in some countries led to the failure of the revolutions e.g in the
Austrian empire, after the fall of Metternich, some revolutionaries relaxed and eventually failed.
Lastly, the fear of Austria in most these states led to the failure of the revolutions. The rulers
themselves feared the military strength of Austria and they were not willing to go against the
interest of Austria e.g King Fredrick William IV of Prussia and the Pope in the Papal states.
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Reasons for the Absence of the 1848 Revolutions in Britain, Belgium Poland and Russia.
The revolution that swept a cross European in 1848 did not affected some countries and if the
disturbance was there, then it was slight in nature.
a) Britain and Belgium
By 1848, Britain and Belgium were among the most democratic and liberal states in Europe.
Britain was a constitutional monarchy. Even Belgium as a result of the 1830 revolution had a
representative parliament. Therefore in both countries, the masses enjoyed personal freedom like
press, speech, worship etc. Such a democratic environment could not create revolutions.
Britain and Belgium had strong industrialized economies by 1848. Therefore, they were in a
better position to absorb the rapid growing population which reduced unemployment. This was
unlike in the weak agricultural states like Austria, Germany and Italian states where the rising
unemployment levels bred revolutions.
Although foreign domination and the desire for independence had caused revolutions in other
states of Europe, Britain and Belgium had to survive. The 1848 revolutions found the masses in
the two states enjoying their independence fully unlike in the Italian and Germany states where
they rose up against Austrian foreign domination.
Britain and Belgium were free from the Metternich system i.e the Carlsbad decrees and tight spy
network which had led to the rise of anti-Metternich revolutions in 1848.
The poor harvests of 1847-48 that resulted into food shortages were not so great in Britain and
Belgium to cause a revolution. Britain had enough food reserves and imports that enabled her to
solve the problem of food shortage which would have caused a revolution.
Britain was also saved from the 1848 revolutions because she had over seas colonies like The
Cape, Australia, Newzealand, Canada and India. Therefore since most of these revolutions were
caused by unemployment, for Britain the surplus population was sent to such colonies.
Although Britain had a number of provinces as part of her empire, she did not experience much
trouble like Austria because these provinces were over seas yet those of Austria were directly
annexed to her.
The position/ location of Britain made her survive the 1848 revolutionary fire. Because of her
island nature, she had no direct contact/ interaction with Europe and the countries that had
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revolutions like France and Austria. Therefore, she was cutoff from the direct problem of
revolutionary ideas from other states.
In addition, the British colonies were allowed some degree of fair and flexible governments e.g
the Canadian colony of Britain was allowed to have responsibility over her local parliamentary
affairs. The same system was extended to Newzealand and The Cape.
Britain isolated her self. For a long time, Britain had isolated herself from European affairs. She
maintained the policy of non intervention into the internal affairs of other states. She only reacted
when her interests were threatened. This attitude of isolation made her survive the 1848
revolutions.
Britain and Belgium didn’t have social classes and the system of privileges which had caused
discontent in other states like in Austria and Germany states. There were no peasants in Britain
to cause a revolution.
b) Russia
By 1848, Russia was characterized with many aspects like censorship of press, religious
discrimination, serfdom and a high degree of despotism. Therefore by 1848, Russia was a fertile
ground for the out break of revolutions. However, there was no revolution and this was due to
the following factors.
General ignorance: majority of the Russians were peasants who were generally ignorant and
didn’t know what was taking place in the rest to Europe. Unlike other peasants in Europe, those
in Russia didn’t have access to education and therefore didn’t have the techniques of conducting
a revolution.
The spy net work: Russia had a spy network similar to that of Metternich in Austria which
detected potential revolutionaries. These were deported to Serbia where they were subjected to
forced labour. The intellectuals were also controlled and anti-government news papers were
censored. All these measures reduced chances of revolutions in Russia.
Low level of industrialization: Russia was one of the European states that hadn’t experienced
industrialization but 1848. The Russian economy remained generally agricultural and the whole
population was rural based. The problems associated with industrialization which would have
constituted common grievances for both the middle and working class were missing.
The East-ward migration of many Russians to Asia in the 19th century reduced the population
pressure whereby they got freedom and food which were in short supply in Russia.
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c) Poland
By 1848, Poland had various parts controlled by foreign powers like Austria, Prussia and
Russia. Therefore she was a fertile ground for revolutions in 1848. However, there was no
revolution because of the following factors.
Like Russia, her level of industrialization was still low and there were no urban centers
where the disgruntled people could assemble to cause a revolution.
Poland was a colony to three strong states i.e Austria, Prussia and Russia and she had no
chance of defeating any of them.
In 1847, Austria had abolished forced labour in her polish areas and therefore the peasants
were now contented.
The Russians had occupied the polish state since 1830 and this scared the Poles from
rebelling.
Review Questions
1. Discuss the success and failure of the 1848 liberal revolutions in Europe.
2. Account for the out reak and failure of the 1848 liberal revolutions in the Austrian empire.
3. To what extent were the 1848 liberal revolutions in Europe a success?
4. Account fort he failure of the 1848 revolution in Prussia.
5. To what extent was the Metternich system responsible for the but break of revolutions in
Europe in 1848?
6. Account fort the outbreak of liberal revolutions in the Italian states in 1848.
7. The outbreak of the 1848 revolutions in Europe was inevitable. Discuss.
8. Account for the outbreak of liberal revolutions in Hungary in 1848.
9. The downfall of Louis Philippe in 1848 was inevitable. Discuss
10. Discuss the main features of the 1848 liberal revolutions in Europe.
11. Account for the absence of the 1848 revolutions in Britain.
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THE MAKING OF CENTRAL EUROPE
This theme introduces us to the processes, forces and methods that were applied by European
nationalists to create the two nation-states of Italy and Germany which are located in the Central
European region. The process began as far back as the era of the 1789 French revolution which
gave birth to the ideal of nationalism (national unity) through the age of revolutions (1830-49) to
the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 which left the two nations finally united.
THE POLITICAL UNIFICATION OF ITALIAN STATES.
The political unification of Italian states was the process through which the modern Italian nation
evolved. It involved a series of revolutions, wars and compromises that resulted into the political
amalgamation of the constituent states to form one bigger nation. These states included the
Central Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany that were ruled by the Hapsburg princes of
Austria, the states of Lombardy and Venetia which were directly ruled by Austria, the Kingdom
of Naples and Sicily which were ruled by the Bourbon branch of Spain, the Papal states that were
directly ruled by the Pope as their political head and the Kingdom of Piedmont that controlled
the island of Sardinia, the Free Republic of Genoa, Nice and Savoy and was ruled by the Royal
House of Savoy. The architects of the Italian unification movement included Giuseppe Mazzini,
Giuseppe Garibaldi, Camillo di Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II, among others. The Italian
dream of national unification was only fulfilled in the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71.
Obstacles to Italian Unification/ Why the unification of Italy delayed up to 1870.
I.
One of the obstacles to Italian unification was foreign domination. The Italian states had
since times immemorial been subjected to various versions of foreign domination. Until
1797, they were ruled by Austria, and then France took over after Napoleon’s Italian
campaign. In 1815, the Vienna Settlement again subjected the Italian states to Austrian
domination. As a result, every attempt of Italian unification was suppressed by these
foreign powers, for example the Cabonary revolts of 1830 and the Young Italy revolts of
1848. All this led to the delay of Italian unification up to 1870.
II.
The political divisions among the Italian states delayed the national unification of Italy.
The Italian states had different political systems and were ruled by different foreign
powers. Some were kingdoms, others republics and others duchies. The Kingdom of
Piedmont was ruled by the Royal House of Savoy, the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily was
ruled by the Spanish branch of the Bourbons, the Central duchies of Parma, Modena and
Tuscany were ruled by the young brothers of the Hapsburg emperor of Austria while
Lombardy and Venetia were directly ruled by Austria. With such divisionism, it was
difficult to unify the various Italian states until 1870.
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III.
The differences in economic systems among the various Italian states brought about the
delay of the unification struggle. There existed different weights and measures in the
various Italian states. Besides, each state had its own currency. Such economic
differences made trade and economic harmony difficult among these states. In addition, it
made the Italian states lag behind in economic development with no resources to finance
the unification movement. It therefore explains the failure of unification efforts from the
1820-1848.
IV.
The influence of the Pope and the Catholic Church also hindered the achievement of
Italian unification. Rome was the seat of the Papacy and the headquarters of the Catholic
Church in the whole world. The Pope was conservative and collaborated with Prince
Metternich of Austria to destroy the nationalistic movement in Italy. He also commanded
a lot of royalty from the catholic states and population of Europe and that partly explains
why the French intervened in his favor in 1848 and destroyed the Roman republic of
Mazzini. With the Pope therefore holding on in his anti-nationalistic position, the
unification movement had to suffer for a long time.
V.
The Vienna Settlement of 1815 also contributed to the delay of Italian unification. In an
attempt to balance power, the Italian states became victims of foreign Austrian
domination. Lombardy and Venetia were directly integrated into Austria, the Central
Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany were to be ruled by the young brothers of the
Hapsburg emperor of Austria. The Pope’s position over the Papal States was also
strengthened by the Vienna Settlement while the Spanish branch of Bourbon was
imposed onto Naples and Sicily. The Vienna Settlement was therefore a strong obstacle
to the process of Italian unification.
VI.
The existence of the Metternich system in the Italian states was another obstacle in the
unification process. Metternich was the Chancellor of Austria who hated anything called
nationalism and since the Italian states were under Austrian administration, they suffered
the wrath of his system. He created a strong espionage system, police machinery and
army to suppress Italian nationalism. This led to the failure of the Carbonary and Young
Italy movements that had sought to unify the Italian states.
VII.
The military weakness of the Italian states also hindered their unification. All the Italian
states including Piedmont that was supposed to champion the unification struggle were
militarily weak and could not face the military mighty of Austria. The Piedmontese army
was not yet modernized. The Carbonary movement was also a rudimentary organization
that lacked effective leadership since most of its members were charcoal burners. All this
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explains why the unification efforts of 1830 and 1848 were militarily defeated by the
Austrian forces.
VIII.
The lack of strong leadership was yet another obstacle in the Italian unification. The
Italian nationalists were not able to command a sustainable struggle against Austria and
the Catholic church. King Victor Emmanuel of Piedmont together with his successor
Charles Albert were weak, coward and conservation. Mazzini, the leader of the Young
Italy movement was more of an intellectual than a revolutionary leader. There was
therefore absence of competent revolutionary and nationalistic leaders to steer the path of
Italian unification.
IX.
The lack of foreign assistance also delayed the Italian unification. Mazzini, the leader of
the Young Italy movement miscalculated when he assumed that the unification struggle
of the Italian states was for Italy and Italians only. More so even the bigger powers such
as Britain and France were not in favor of the Italian unification for fear of antagonizing
the balance of power on the European continent. There was therefore no any foreign
support accorded to the Italian unification until 1859. This explains why all efforts of
unification before then suffered frustration and setbacks.
X.
The economic backwardness of the Italian states also led to the delay of national
unification. A successful unification struggle had to be preceded by a strong economic
system. However, by 1848 the Italian states were known for nothing apart from poverty,
ignorance, malaria and disease. Piedmont, the only independent Italian state was a barren
Island. The economically resourceful states of Lombardy and Venetia were directly ruled
by Austria. The industrial revolution had not yet extended to Italy. There was therefore
no strong middle class to finance the struggle for national unification in the Italian states.
XI.
Another factor that worked against the process of Italian unification was ideological
differences. The Italian patriots lacked a common ideology in their unification struggle.
There was no clearly agreed upon type of a nation Italy would become after unification.
Some nationalists especially Garibaldi and Mazzini were fighting to create a republic
while others such as Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II wanted a constitutional monarchy
similar to that of England. Conservative Catholics on the other hand preferred a nation
headed by the Pope. That was the confusion among the Italians and so was the reason for
the delayed victory in their unification struggle.
XII.
The lack of mass support has also been noted to have hindered the realization of Italian
unification much earlier. The spirit of nationalism had not yet penetrated most of the
Italian circles before 1850. Majority of the Italians were generally ignorant about the
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XIII.
importance of a united nation. This explains why the earlier efforts of 1820s to 1848
miserably failed.
The struggle for Italian unification was also held back by social backwardness since a
great bulk of Italian population was illiterate, ignorant and largely rural dwellers
characterized by poverty, disease and hunger. This explains why the 1830 and 1848
revolutions were dominated by urban elites (dwellers) who were actually few and not
active fighters but intellectual debaters, hence the failure to realize victory earlier.
XIV.
There was also selfishness and individualism among the Italian leaders which hindered
the struggle. Many of the Italian princes did not support the idea of Italian unification for
fear of losing their imperial positions when the nation finally unifies. Such leaders
included the Bourbons in Naples and Sicily, the Pope in the Papal states, and the ruling
Hapsburg princes in the central duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany. It was this kind
of individualism that made Italy delay to realize unity earlier.
XV.
The element of geographical/ natural barriers/ factors also hindered the struggle for
national unification among the Italian states. Much of the Italian landscape was a rugged
mountainous relief which made road building and communication much more difficult.
Piedmont which was to be the leading state in the unification struggle was a barren
island. Such geographical phenomenon incapacitated the efforts of the nationalists and
no wonder unification was delayed.
In conclusion, the unification of Italian states was largely held back by military inferiority,
economic backwardness and personality differences. The situation was worsened by the lack of
foreign assistance. The Italian movements battled forces that were stronger and could not be
easily removed for example, Austrian might and the obstacle of the Catholic Church. It was not
until the rise of Cavour in the 1850s that most of these obstacles were off set.
MAJOR ARCHTECTS IN THE ITALIAN UNIFICATION.
There were a number of personalities whose effort enabled the creation of the modern nation of
Italy in the last half of the nineteenth century. These personalities included Giuseppe Mazzini,
Giuseppe Garibaldi, Camillo di Cavour, Victor Emmanuel II, among others. Below is their
individual contribution to the Italian Unification.
Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872)
This radical politician who came to be known as the ‘Prophet of Italian unification’ was born
in 1805 in the Italian republic of Genoa. At the age of 25 after his university education, Mazzini
joined the Cabonary, an underground movement which had been formed after the Vienna
Settlement of 1815 to fight for the independence and unification of Italy. The activities of this
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movement were however crushed by Prince Metternich, the Chancellor of the Hapsburg Empire
of Austria. Mazzini contributed in the following ways to the unification of Italian states.
I.
Mazzini participated in the formation and activities of the Cabonary movement. This
movement was formed in reaction to the terms of the Vienna Settlement of 1815 which
had put the Italian states under Austrian rule. Through this movement, Mazzini
participated in organizing the revolts of 1820 and 1830 in the Italian states of Naples,
Sicily, Piedmont, Parma, Modena and the Papal states. These revolts stirred the spirit of
nationalism in the Italian states which laid the foundation for the success of future efforts
in the Italian unification.
II.
Mazzini created the Young Italy to harness the process of Italian unification. After the
collapse of the 1830 revolutions, Mazzini realized that the problem was caused by the
lack of preparation and coordination. In 1831, the Young Italy was formed as an
instrument to politicize the Italian population and widen the scale of their national
consciousness in preparation for the struggle against Austria. By 1833, the Young Italy
had over 60,000 members and its activities led to the growth of Italian nationalism which
led to the success of the unification movement.
III.
Mazzini castigated and dismissed the arrangements of the Vienna Settlement of 1815.
The Settlement had put the Italian states under foreign domination under the pretext of
balancing power and curbing further French aggression. Lombardy and Venetia were
placed under the direct administration of the Hapsburg Emperor of Austria while Naples
and Sicily were placed under the Spanish branch of Bourbon. To Mazzini, this was an
erosion of independence by the mere stroke of a pen. He also dismissed Metternich’s
claim that the Italian states were a mere geographical expression of the Austrian empire.
All this contributed to the awakening of national consciousness among the Italian as a
factor for the achievement of national unification.
IV.
Mazzini helped to create national unity in Italy which furthered the spirit of unification.
Though the Cabonary movement and the Young Italy, Mazzini mobilized the Italian
masses and this created a sense of togetherness which even enabled the success of the
efforts of future patriots such as Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II of Piedmont.
V.
Mazzini also led the revolt of 1833 in Piedmont which worked in favor of the program of
national unification. He mobilized the members of the Young Italy and opened a revolt
on Charles Albert, the King of Piedmont who had failed to lead the struggle against
Austria. Charles Albert was conservative, coward and afraid of Austria. Though the
revolt was defeated, Mazzini is credited for attempting to get rid of a conservative King
who proved an obstacle in the Italian unification.
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VI.
Mazzini participated in the 1848 revolutions in Italy which led to the creation of the
Roman Republic. He overthrew the Pope and held him a prisoner at Gaeta. Finally a
republic was proclaimed in Italy with Mazzini himself as President. Though the Roman
republic was overthrown through the intervention of Napoleon III of France, Mazzini
made efforts towards the removal of the Papal obstacle to Italian unification.
VII.
Mazzini always wore black which signified morning and weeping for a disunited Italy.
This created in Italy the spirit of national consciousness which led to the achievement of
national unification.
Mazzini’s efforts have however not gone without criticism.
I.
He underestimated the role of foreign assistance without which the unification of Italy
would remain more of a dream than a reality. Mazzini held the view that the struggle for
Italian unification was for Italy and Italian only. This could not work since the Italians
were militarily and economically weak and so needed the help of foreign powers.
II.
Mazzini failed to create a broad based movement in Italy. Much of his struggle was urban
based and only centered among the intellectuals who were good for no action other than
debates which could not yield any fruitful results apart from defeats at the hands of
foreign powers such as Austria and France.
III.
Mazzini failed to coordinate his efforts with the Monarchs of Italy especially the King of
Piedmont. Any effort of national unification necessitated political support especially the
mobilization of resources and rallying of mass support. However Mazzini held the view
that no King could be trusted to produce the great united, free and democratic Italian
nation of which he dreamt. Future efforts proved to history that Mazzini was false
because it was a King who finally united Italy in 1870.
IV.
Mazzini was a conservative republican and he failed to reconcile his ideological belief
with other Italian patriots such as the Catholics and Monarchists like Cavour. This
undermined the spirit of unity which led to the failure of the efforts of 1820 -1848.
V.
Mazzini failed to establish himself strong bases within Italy. After the failure of the 1830
revolts, Mazzini was exiled to Switzerland from where he began operating by forming the
Young Italy. Following the failure of his revolt of 1833, he was even exiled by the Swiss
to Marseilles in France from where he was also expelled by Louis Philippe and
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eventually went to England to serve as a school teacher. Him being in exile almost all the
time meant failure of his efforts on the ground.
Despite his weaknesses, Mazzini was very remarkable in the creation of the modern nation of
Italy. His efforts led to the success of future nationalists such as Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II.
Mazzini finally died in 1872 while in exile in Switzerland after long criticism of the policies of
his Italian leaders.
Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882)
Garibaldi who became known as the Sword of Italian Unification was born in 1807 at Nice, then
under the control of Piedmont. He was a close friend of Mazzini and he too was a republican. He
was a soldier who actively participated in most of the wars and revolutions through which the
nation of Italy was made. His contribution to the Italian unification can be seen in the following
ways.
I.
Garibaldi participated in the formation and activities of the Cabonary movement after the
Vienna Settlement of 1815. The Cabonary organized revolutions in the Italian states of
Naples and Sicily in the 1820s up to 1830 aiming at expelling foreign domination out of
Italy and unite the country. This contributed to the rise of Italian nationalism and
patriotism that led to the achievement of national unification.
II.
Garibaldi was an active member of the Young Italy, a movement formed in 1831 by
Mazzini to prepare and coordinate efforts of national unification.
III.
In 1833, Garibaldi joined Mazzini in attempting to remove the obstacle of Charles Albert
of Sardinia who had failed to steer the path to Italian unification arguing that the time was
not yet ripe. Though the campaign ended in fiasco, it set the ground for Piedmont to lead
the struggle for Italian unification.
IV.
Garibaldi attempted to organize a revolt in the Piedmontese navy intending to use it
against Charles Albert of Sardinia in order to force him into the struggle against Austria.
Though he failed in this move, his activities stirred the rise of the spirit of Italian
patriotism that would later make it possible to unite the nation.
V.
Garibaldi participated in the 1848 revolutions that led to the formation of the Roman
republic as a step towards the unification of the country. In this stage, the Pope who was
another obstacle to the process of Italian unification was overthrown and imprisoned at
Gaeta. However the republic was overthrown by Napoleon III of France who was by then
opposed to the unification of Italy.
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VI.
Garibaldi created a guerilla army known as the ‘Red Shirts’ or the ‘Army of Thousand’
This was attributed to its popular red uniform which he got from South America where he
was exiled after the failure of the 1834 revolt. While in exile, Garibaldi fought for
Uruguay against Brazil and Argentina and through such adventures, he gained the art of
guerilla warfare which he was alter to employ against the Austrians in Italy. The guerilla
force that he created after his return in 1848 was instrumental in most of the campaigns
which ended in the total unification of Italy in 1870.
VII.
Garibaldi fought in the Austro-Piedmontese war of 1859 which led to the liberation of
Lombardy from Austria. His army of Thousand red shirts fought alongside the French
and Piedmontese forces which defeated the Austrians at the famous battles of Mangeta
and Solferino, leading to the treaty of Villa-Franca of 1859 by which Austria ceded
Lombardy to Piedmont.
VIII.
Garibaldi and his army of Thousand red shirts attacked and conquered Naples and Sicily
in 1860. He defeated the despotic government of Francis II and then handed over the two
states to the King of Piedmont, after which he settled as a farmer on the island of Caprera
at the coast of Sardinia.
IX.
Garibaldi indirectly contributed to the annexation of the Papal States in 1860. After the
conquest of Naples and Sicily, Garibaldi’s next target was the Papal States including
Rome which was under French garrison since 1848 protecting the spiritual position of the
Pope. Cavour however knew that such a move would provoke both French and Austrian
hostility. So to safe guard the Pope, Cavour and Victor Emmanuel II ordered the
Piedmontese army to occupy the Papal States, thus forestalling Garibaldi. Plebiscites
were held in the Papal States which eventually voted for union with Piedmont. Cavour
had protected the spiritual position of the Pope but had also gained the territory.
X.
After all the above efforts, Garibaldi’s army of thousand was disbanded on the orders of
King Victor Emmanuel II, forcing the soldier to retire to farming on the island of Caprera
off the Sardinian coast.
Count Camillo di Cavour (1810-1861)
Cavour was the most popular figure in the Italian unification and it is actually argued that
without him, the unification of Italy would have remained a dream. He was born to a
Piedmontese nobleman Michelle Benso di Cavour at Turin in Piedmont on 10th August, 1810.
After his university education, he served in the Piedmontese army but later resigned after a
quarrel with his superiors over his open support for the 1830 revolt in France against Charles X.
He then travelled widely studying the political life of France and England. In 1848, he became
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member of the Piedmontese Parliament. He served in various capacities in the Piedmontese
government as Minister of Commerce, Navy, Finance between 1850 and 1851, and finally as
Prime Minister in 1852, a post he held up to his death in 1861. He played the following role in
the unification of Italian states.
I.
Cavour established an important newspaper called Il Risorgimento in 1847 which was
devoted to the cause of Italian unity and freedom. He used it a platform to sensitize and
mobilize the Italian masses to the cause of national unification. It led to the shaping of
Italian national consciousness and patriotism which gave occasion for the breakthrough
in the unification campaign in 1870.
II.
Cavour’s influence led to the removal of the Catholic Church from the state affairs of
Piedmont. When he became member of the Piedmontese Parliament in 1848, Cavour
supported the policy of Victor Emmanuel II to reduce the political power of the Church.
Consequently, Ecclesiastical Laws were passed depriving the Church of its Law courts
and its right of inheriting property became subject to state approval. Though the Church
hated Cavour for his attitude, the government was determined that there should be no
state within the state and this helped in furthering the process of Italian unification.
III.
Cavour helped to strengthen the Piedmontese economy in order to provide a strong base
for national unification. As Minister of Commerce, Finance and Agriculture, Cavour
introduced better agricultural methods in Piedmont, promoted trade through trade
alliances with developed countries such as Britain, France and Belgium, established
banks and cooperative societies and started a service of Atlantic mail. By so doing,
Cavour was able to modernize Piedmont, putting it in a better position to lead the struggle
for national unification.
IV.
Cavour initiated military reforms in the Piedmontese army which helped the unification
program. He gave much attention to the strengthening of the army. The whole force was
re-equipped and the promotion of middle-class officers made easy. This helped to give
Piedmont victory in the unification wars that were fought thereafter, for example against
Austria in 1859.
Cavour also solicited for foreign assistance to further the unification struggle. He
tactfully involved Piedmont in the Crimean war on the side of Britain, France and Turkey
against Russia which resulted into the latter’s defeat in 1855. In the Conference of Paris
of 1856, Cavour succeeded in attracting the sympathy of the big powers especially France
towards the Italian cause.
V.
VI.
Cavour signed the Plombieres Pact of 1858 which became vital in the unification
struggle. The pact was signed with Napoleon III of France, following the Orsin attempted
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assassination on the life of the Emperor. The pact aimed at provoking Austria into war
and then both Piedmont and France would fight jointly against her. In line with the terms,
Cavour demilitarized the Piedmontese region adjoining Lombardy which forced Austria
to open war in which she was defeated leading to the Piedmontese acquisition of
Lombardy.
VII.
Cavour encouraged King Victor Emmanuel II to conquer the Papal States in 1860. This
was done to prevent Garibaldi’s ambition which was bound to provoke foreign hostility
especially from France and Austria. Plebiscites were conducted and the Papal States
voted to join Piedmont, thus Cavour succeeded in saving the spiritual position of the
Pope but also gained his territory.
VIII.
Cavour in alliance with the Emperor Napoleon III of France organized the plebiscite of
1860 in which the Central Italian duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany and the Papal
state of Romagna voted for union with Piedmont and these were immediately annexed,
hence the saying that without Cavour, the Italian unification would have remained a
dream.
IX.
Cavour indirectly contributed to the acquisition of Naples and Sicily in 1860. He allowed
Garibaldi to recruit his fighters and train them from Piedmont. He even allowed him to
freely sail from Genoa to land at Marsala for the invasion of Sicily. The unpopular
Bourbon leader Francis II panicked and within less than a year, Naples and Sicily had
been conquered by Garibaldi and after the conquest, he handed over the two states to
Piedmont.
X.
Cavour created the Kingdom of Italy in March 1861. He decided on the political
amalgamation of all the liberated Italian states of Lombardy, the Central duchies, the
Papal States, and Naples and Sicily under Piedmont. The Italian Parliament sat in Turin
made up of representatives from all over Italy except Venetia and Rome. Victor
Emmanuel II was proclaimed King of Italy and Cavour Prime Minister, though he died
three months later.
XI.
Cavour had also negotiated with Bismarck of Prussia over the liberation of Venetia and
this paved way for Prussia’s assistance to Italy to gain Venetia in 1866.
Cavour’s efforts have been criticized on the following grounds
He undermined the Catholic position and for this matter the Catholics hated him
especially after the passing of the Ecclesiastical Laws of 1848.
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He was also criticized by fellow nationalists such as Garibaldi for giving away Nice and
Savoy to France after the liberation of Lombardy in 1859. Garibaldi in particular is
quoted to have said that he was made a foreigner in his native land.
Despite such short comings, Cavour made a great contribution without which the Italian
unification would not have occurred at the time it did.
King Victor Emmanuel II
Victor Emmanuel II was born in 1820 at Turin the capital of Piedmont to King Charles
Albert. He became King of Piedmont in 1848 following the abdication of King Charles
Albert who had attempted a revolt against Austria but suffered a crushing defeat on the
frontline. According to Denis Richards; ‘Having in vain sought death on the battle field,
the unfortunate monarch abdicated in favor of his son Victor Emmanuel II and retired to
Portugal where he died heart-broken within a few months’ Victor Emmanuel was a
courageous and revolutionary King and through his leadership, Piedmont was able to
champion the course of Italian unification.
In the first place, Victor Emmanuel II removed the Catholic Church influence from the
state affairs of Piedmont. This was through the Ecclesiastical Laws of 1848. It should be
noted that the Catholic Church had for long been a strong obstacle to the unification
movement and since its activities were intertwined with those of the state, all unification
efforts had failed miserably. However, with Victor Emmanuel now as King of Piedmont,
the Catholic Church was no longer an obstacle hence the achievement of Italian
unification.
I.
Victor Emmanuel also played the role of appointing Cavour to cabinet. From
1850, Cavour served in various offices as Minister of Commerce, Finance, Trade,
Industry and Agriculture. In 1852, he appointed him Prime Minister of Piedmont.
He collaborated with him in modernizing Piedmont putting her in a better position
to champion the unification movement.
II.
He allowed the involvement of Piedmont in the Crimean war of 1853-56 on the
side of Britain, France and Turkey against Russia. This enabled her to attract the
sympathies of the big powers towards her unification struggle. France in
particular was read to stand with Piedmont as a way of reciprocating for the help
Piedmont offered to her against Russia. The outcome was the progress of Italian
unification.
III.
He played the role of strengthening Piedmont economically by developing trade,
infrastructures and industry and also modernized agriculture. This availed
Piedmont with economic and financial resources and was thus able to support the
unification struggle of the Italian states.
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IV.
V.
He also strengthened the Piedmontese army through recruitment, training, and
equipment. This enabled the army to defeat the Austrians in 1859 and so liberated
Lombardy, Venetia in 1866 and finally annexed Rome in 1870, hence uniting the
country.
He played another role of claiming the Kingdom of Naples and Sicily following
their conquest by Garibaldi in 1860. The two states were handed over to Piedmont
under the Kingship of Victor Emmanuel II.
VI.
Victor Emmanuel II also played the role of annexing the Papal States in 1860.
These states included Gaeta, Capua, Ancona and Umbria. On the advice of
Cavour, King Victor Emmanuel annexed the states and thus preempted
Garibaldi’s move which would have provoked foreign intervention on the side of
the Pope especially if he had tampered with Rome.
VII.
Victor Emmanuel II played another important role of becoming King of Italy
following the proclamation of the Italian Kingdom by Cavour in March 1861. By
this time only Venetia and Rome remained out of the scope of the united Italian
Kingdom.
VIII.
Victor Emmanuel further involved Piedmont in the 1866 Austro-Prussian war
which led to the liberation of Venetia. He accepted Bismarck’s plan that the
Italian army fights on the side of Prussia and that Venetia would be ceded to Italy
in the aftermath of Austrian defeat. Thus after seven weeks fighting in which the
Austrian army was defeated, Austria surrendered Venetia to Italy under the terms
of the treaty of Prague.
IX.
Finally King Victor Emmanuel II played the role of annexing Rome in 1870, thus
completely uniting the country. He marched to Rome with the Italian army
following the withdraw of the French garrison by Napoleon III under the pressure
of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. He annexed Rome and made it the nucleus of
the Italian Kingdom. According to Denis Richards; ‘In protest, Pius IX retired as
a voluntary prisoner to his palace of Vatican from where no Pope ever emerged
until 1929 when the dictator Mussolini ended the long quarrel between the new
Italian state and the Papacy’.
Other personalities
Orsin
His attempt to assassinate Napoleon III reminded the Emperor of his promise to
help Piedmont unite Italy. Out of this debacle came the pact of Plombieres by
which France reinforced Piedmont against Austria in 1859 Austro-Piedmontese
war.
Napoleon III
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I.
Reinforced Piedmont with 20,000 French troops giving her victory against
Austria and the liberation of Lombardy.
II.
Organized the plebiscite of 1860 in which the central Italian duchies voted for
union with Piedmont.
III.
Played the role of handing over Venetia to Italy following the Austro-Prussian
war of 1866.
IV.
Removed the French garrison from Rome in 1870 giving opportunity to King
Victor Emmanuel II to annex the city which eventually became the nucleus of
Italy.
Bismarck
I.
He forced Austria to surrender Venetia to Italy after the Austro-Prussian war of
1866.
II.
He provoked the outbreak of the Franco-Prussian war of 1870 which forced
Napoleon III to withdraw the French garrison from Rome leaving the Pope unsafe
without defense. Finally, Rome fell to Italy, thus completing the unification the
country.
Main Stages in the Italian Unification
The process of Italian unification has remained a debate among the contemporary
historians. Some argue that the beginning of making Italy should be dated to the
emergence of Cavour and piedmont while others argue that the whole series of events
from the French revolution of 1789 to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71 should be put
into consideration.
1). The Italian Campaign of 1796-97
In 1996, Napoleon Bonaparte was commissioned b y the directory government in France
to expel Austria out of Italy. The Italian campaign was successful as the Austrians were
driven out of Italy and by the treaty of Campoformio of 1797; Austria surrendered the
Italian states to France. Napoleon’s success had been brought about by the help of the
Italians who were promised unity, equality and freedom. Napoleon then re-organized the
Italian state into the Cisalpine republic and initiated in Italy a number of reforms based
on the French revolution e.g. he abolished serfdom and introduced some French, legal
French codes in Italy. For the 1st time, the Italians took part in the political discussions
and obtained a sense of unity against foreign domination. In short, the Italian campaign
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inspired the rise of Italian nationalism which made Italy to fight for her unification and
independence to the point of success in 1870.
2). The Cabonary Movement and Revolutions Of 1820s-1830.
Cabonary as popular patriotic Italian movement that aimed at throwing out foreign
domination. It organized revolutions in Naples and Sicily forcing the Bourbon Ferdinand
1 to grant a liberal constitution. However, at the congress of Laibachi in 1821, Austria
was tasked by the powers to go Naples and Sicily and crush the revolution. This she did
with great success. Ferdinand 1 was restored at even withdraw the liberal constitution he
had granted. In 1830, the Cabonary again waged revolutions against Austria but its
activities were suppressed by the Metternich system. The failure of the Cabonary
movement was a teaching lesson to the future leaders that minus mass mobilization, it
kept the fire of Italian nationalism burning.
3). The Young Italy Movement of 1831
Giuseppe Mazzini concluded that the failure of the Cabonary movement to make Italy
was due to lack of co-ordination and preparation among the Italian people. He therefore
right away founded a movement known as the young Italy as a tool of mobilization and
sensitization to co-ordinate and prepare for unification struggle. On account of this,
Mazzini was termed “the prophet of unification”. The activities of the young Italy are
remembered for promoting Italian nationalism hence contributing to the making of the
Italian state in 1870.
4). The 1848 Liberal Revolts and the Roman Republic
The revolutions began in the Sicilian capital of Pulamo and then spread to other states
like Milan and the Papal States. Unfortunately, Australia with the Russian assistance
intervened and crushed the revolutionaries in Sicily, Milan and other states. In the Papal
States, the revolutionaries had succeeded abit. They had over thrown the pope and
founded the Roman Republic with Giuseppe Mazzini as president. However, the
Republic was short lived because Napoleon III of France came in suppressed the
Republicans and restored the pope to his position.
Although this step was also a failure, it wasn’t a total failure. The activities of the Italian
revolutionaries influenced the Austrian liberals, professors, lecturers and students to
match to the Emperor’s palace demanding for the dismissal of Metternich. Metternich
had no option but to abdicate, forged as Mr. Smith and escaped to England. With
Metternich now out of office, Italian nationalism was bound to triumph in 1870.
5) The Emergence of Count Camillo di Cavour and Piedmont:
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The election of Cavour to the 1st Piedmontese parliament in 1848 was a blessing for Italy.
A year before, he had published his book titled Il Risorgimento which pointed to the
scheme of unification. Through Cavour, piedmont began to modernize. When he became
minister of commerce, transport, industry and agriculture, he initiated a number of
reforms in the economy, army and civil service. As prime minister of piedmont, he
entered the Crimean war which resulted into the Franco-Piedmontese alliance which
enabled piedmont to succeed against Austria in 1859 and beyond thus liberating Italian
lands. In short, the emergence of Cavour is what made piedmont the “maker of Italy”.
6) The Austro-Piedmontese War of 1859
In 1858, there was an attempted assassination of Napoleon the III by an Italian sadist
called Orsin. When he was arrested and interrogated, he’s answer was one and simple,
“why has the emperor delayed to help Italy unite?” This propelled Napoleon III to invite
Cavour to the village of Plombieres and the Plombieres Pact was signed by which
Napoleon agreed that “Austria must first be put in the wrong Cavour did this by
militarizing the Piedmontese region adjoining Lombardy. Austria ordered Cavour to
demilitarize the region but Cavour refused and Austria declared war hence the AustroPiedmontese war. Napoleon III sent a force of 20,000 troops to assist piedmont and
Australia was defeated twice at the battles of Mangeta and Solferino leading to the treaty
of Villa Franca by which she surrendered Lombardy to piedmont. In appreciation, Cavour
ceded to France Nice and Savoy. This was the 1st successful step in creating the Italian
state.
7) The annexation of the central Italian Duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany and the
Papal state of Romagna in 1860.
The defeat of Austria in 1859 revealed that she was a weak state and this led to revolts in
her subject states i.e. the central Duchies which by the terms of the Vienna settlement of
1815 were ruled by the young brothers of the Hapsburg emperor. Napoleon of France
organized a plebiscite for the Duchies and Romagna to decide their destiny. They had
three choices i.e. a union with Piedmont, independence or a union with Austria.
Overwhelmingly, the revolting states and Romagna voted for the union with Piedmont
and this was effected forth with. By this time, the unification of Italy was in full gear.
8) The annexation of Naples and Sicily.
In December 1860, Garibaldi and his Army of 1000 sailed from the port of Genoa to
Sicily under the cover of British warship, captured Naples and Sicily and handed them
over to the king of Piedmont.
9) The annexation of the papal states of Ancona, Umbria, Capua and Gaeta:
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After conquering Naples and Sicily, Garibaldi’s next target was the Papal States.
However, on the advice of Prime Minister Cavour, king victor Emmanuel II mobilized
his army moved on to the Papal States and conquered them before Garibaldi could get
there. These were joined to piedmont.
10) The proclamation of the Italian Kingdom in March 1861. The Italian parliament sat at
Turin and the kingdom of Italy was proclaimed with Victor Emmanuel II as king and
count Camillo di Cavour as prime minister. By this time, only Venetia and Rome
remained unliberated but Cavour had already negotiated with Bismarck of Prussia about
the liberation of Venetia and was convinced that at one time, Rome would also fall to
Italy. Unfortunately, he died 3 months later without witnessing full unification of Italy.
However, he has sunk down into history as a great architect without whose efforts
perhaps there would be no Italian nation.
11) The liberation of Venetia in 1866;
In 1866, there was the Austro-Prussian war in which the Italians helped the Prussians to
defeat Austria in 7 weeks. By the treaty of Prague, Bismarck conditioned Austria to
surrender Venetia to Italy. Austria surrendered it to Napoleon III who handed it over to
Italy. By this time, only Rome remained unliberated because of the French Garrison
stationed there in 1848 to protect the pope.
12) The Franco-Prussian war (1870-71): This war concluded the debate on Italian
unification. The war pressure forced Napoleon III to withdraw the French Garrison from
Rome and the Pope was left unsafe without defense. King Victor Emmanuel II took
advantage of the vacuum mobilized his forced and matched on to Rome and forced the
pope to surrender Rome to Italy. This the pope did and Rome became the center of Italy
as it is today.
In conclusion, the unification of Italy was not instantaneous but a gradual process of the
Italian campaign, of 1796 to the Franco-Prussian war of 1870. In analysis, the mistakes
and failures of the past were a lesson to the future leaders of Italy such as Cavour and
victor Emmanuel II.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Review Questions
Assess the role of king Victor Emmanuel II in the Italian unification (2002)
External factors were primarily for the delay of Italian unification (2007).
Discuss the main stages in the Italian unification
Without foreign assistance, the Italian unification wouldn’t have been possible. Discuss
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A Summary of Factors that Facilitated the Italian unification.
1. The legacy of the 1789 French revolution that gave birth to the forces of nationalism and
liberalism that were spread to the Italian states by Napoleon’s conquest of Italy in 179697 marked the beginning of the struggle for Italian unification and freedom.
2. The creation and activities of the Cabonary movement in the 1820 led to the growth of
Italian patriotism and unification struggle.
3. The legacy of the 1830 revolts in the Italian states consolidated Italian nationalism
4. The formation, coordination and mobilization role of the Young Italy movement from
1831 strengthened Italian nationalism.
5. The legacy of the 1848-49 Italian revolts which began from the Sicilian city of Pulamo
leading to the overthrow of the Pope and the creation of the Roman republic under
Mazzini gave life to the Italian nationalism leading to the success of the unification
struggle in 1871.
6. The downfall of Metternich in the March 1848 revolution in Vienna created a breathing
space for the growth and success of the unification movement in the Italian states.
7. The influence of a liberal Pope Pius IX gave momentum to the unification movement.
Even Metternich commented at one time that “we are prepared for anything except a
liberal Pope”.
8. The influence of Giuseppe Mazzini who acted as the prophet of Italian unification.
9. The patriotic role and conquests of Giuseppe Garibaldi and his private army of thousand
led to immense progress in the unification enterprise.
10. The rise and influence of Cavour, his diplomacy and modernization role of Piedmont led
to the triumph of the unification movement.
11. The role of King Victor Emmanuel II who cooperated with Cavour, accepted to become
King of the United Italy in 1861 and finally annexed Rome in November 1871.
12. The role of the media; newspapers such as the Il Risorgimento stirred the outburst of
nationalistic and patriotic feeling among the Italians as a precondition for the unification
victory in 1871.
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13. The support of the masses especially from the 1850s gave moral strength to the
unification movement.
14. The role of foreign assistance led to the victory of national unification in Italy
I.
II.
France through Napoleon Bonaparte expelled Austria out of Italy during the
campaign of 1796-97.
Turkey’s weakness that led to the outbreak of the Crimean war in 1854 enabled
Piedmont and Cavour in particular to secure alliance of France and the good will
of Britain which facilitated the unification struggle.
III.
France under Napoleon III helped in the conquest of Lombardy in 1859.
IV.
Napoleon III again helped to organize the referendum of 1860 which resulted into
the merger of the Central Italian duchies of Parma, Modena and Tuscany and the
Papal State of Romagna with Piedmont.
V.
The presence of a British warship off the Sicily enabled the patriot Garibaldi have
a safe landing for the conquest of Naples and Sicily in 1860.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
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Russia’s neutrality especially in the campaign of 1859 following Napoleon’s
pledge to review the terms of the Paris treaty of 1856 enabled Piedmont to have
victory over Austria and the liberation of Lombardy.
Prussia under Chancellor Otto Von Bismarck defeated Austria in the 1866
Austro-Prussian war and forced her to surrender Venetia to Italy thus contributing
to the Italian unification.
Napoleon III who mediated the Truce of Prague of 1866 concluding the AustroPrussian war received the Venetia from Austria and handed it over to the
Kingdom of Italy.
Prussia provoked France into the Franco-Prussian war of 1870, leading to the
withdraw of the French army from Rome and finally its conquest of the Italian
forces in November 1870, thus concluding the unification struggle.
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15. The proclamation of the United though incomplete Italian Kingdom in March 1861 was a
major milestone in the unification of Italy.
16. The outbreak and outcome of the Austro-Prussian war of 1866, ie the liberation of
Venetia led to the progress of the Italian unification.
17. The legacy of the Franco-Germany war of 1870 marked the final unification of Italy.
In 1861, Cavour proclaimed a united but incomplete Kingdom of Italy with the capital at
Turin and later Florence in 1865. The conquest of Rome in November 1870 brought
about the victorious conclusion of the unification struggle. Finally in November 1871 the
new Italian parliament was opened in Rome which eventually became the capital of the
new nation of Italy, born out of self-sacrifice, boundless enthusiasm, courage, and a
combination of force and fraud. Its victory was bitter-sweet and its outcome would be the
eminent bombast of fascism under Mussolini fifty years later.
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