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GOOD ENVIRONMENTAL STATUS IN THE PROPOSED MARINE STRATEGY DIRECTIVE Final report for Defra (Ref No. CSA 7061; Project code ME1412) S I Rogers CEFAS, Pakefield Road, Lowestoft, Suffolk, NR33 OHT, UK. 7 June 2006 1 2 Introduction .................................................................................................... 5 An evaluation of Annex II to the draft Directive ........................................... 6 2.1 2.2 2.3 Annex II, Table 1 - Characteristics......................................................................................... 6 Annex II. Table 2 - Pressures and impacts ........................................................................... 9 Conclusions ......................................................................................................................... 10 3 The identification and critical evaluation of what a package of generic qualitative descriptors of GEnS might look like. .............................................. 10 3.1 Generic descriptors of GEnS in sustainably exploited marine environments. ..................... 12 3.1.1 Objectives and indicators in a management framework ............................................. 12 3.1.2 Co-ordinating GEnS with the Habitats and Birds Directives ....................................... 13 3.1.3 Co-ordinating GEnS with the Water Framework Directive .......................................... 13 3.1.4 Descriptors of Good Environmental Status ................................................................. 15 3.2 Learning from national and regional activity ........................................................................ 17 4 An evaluation of the scope of the initial assessment, including benefits, costs and practicality .......................................................................................... 19 4.1 4.2 5 6 Practicality and benefits ....................................................................................................... 19 Cost ...................................................................................................................................... 20 Annex 1. A possible approach to structuring an initial assessment ...... 26 References .................................................................................................... 28 FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 1 Summary The proposed Marine Strategy Directive (MSD) aims to achieve Good Environmental Status (GEnS) in the marine environment by 2021. Member States will be required to assess the status of their marine waters, determine a set of characteristics for GEnS based on generic qualitative descriptors developed by the Commission, and establish environmental targets, monitoring programmes and measures. This paper has been prepared for Defra, UK, and focuses on three topics: An evaluation of Annex II to the draft Directive; The identification and critical evaluation of what a package of generic qualitative descriptors of GES might look like based on Annex II; and An evaluation of the scope of the initial assessment of environmental status that Member States will be required to undertake, including benefits, costs and practicality. The geographic scope of the proposed Directive, from baselines to the furthest extent of jurisdiction, will include the coastal waters defined under the Water Framework Directive (WFD), and the marine waters in which the Habitats and Birds Directives apply. The proposed Marine Regions are equivalent to those of the Regional Seas Conventions (HELCOM, OSPAR, Barcelona Convention), and much work is already underway in such fora to describe aspects of marine ecosystems. It would be important when implementing the Directive if a mechanism be found to integrate activity of the existing Conventions and international agreements. Evaluation of Annex II to the draft Directive The paper reviews the approach taken in Annex II of the proposed Directive to characterising the environment, and categorising the pressures of human activity. The following conclusions were reached: The spatial and temporal scale at which ecosystem processes operate must be considered in the planning of an initial assessment. Further clarification should be sought from the Commission on the meaning of ‘essential characteristics’. The mixture of ecological components (plankton, seabirds, etc) at species, population and community levels, together with attributes of ecosystems such as primary and secondary productivity, is unstructured, and suggests that an initial assessment based on Annex II could be costly and unfocussed. This would provide a more comprehensive description than previous European legislation. No guidance is provided on the link between the characteristics and pressures described Annex II and the descriptors of GEnS. An alternative and more effective approach to structuring the characteristics of the environment would replace the text-based approach with a simple but comprehensive list of characteristics of the environment. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 2 This could possibly incorporate the OSPAR Ecological Quality Objectives (EcoQO) for some ecosystem elements if adopted by Contracting Parties, and also the assessment of Good Ecological Status (GEcS) under the Water Framework Directive. It would also allow ecosystem characteristics to be selected carefully and to be as comprehensive as possible, incorporating all the necessary functional attributes of populations and communities. The inclusion of climate change and the effects of ocean acidification are recommended, as these pressures will become increasingly important in the marine ecosystem. The structured approach in Annex II to the evaluation of the effect on the environment of the pressures caused by human activities is sensible and can be used as the basis for an initial assessment subject to the evaluation being at an appropriate scale to ensure cost-effectiveness. Possible generic qualitative descriptors An important task of a fully integrated assessment and management process is to compare the mechanisms through which human activities exert pressure on the ecosystem, with the list of ecosystem components and attributes. This will focus the monitoring and assessment activity on threatened parts of the environment and damaging human pressures. This risk-based prioritisation is used during the implementation of the Habitats and Birds Directives, where relevant authorities advise on operations that may cause deterioration of habitats or disturbance of listed species. In principle, there is no reason why ‘limits of acceptable change’ specified by these Directives cannot be incorporated into the MSD. The overall approach is also consistent with the pressures and impacts analysis undertaken as part of the WFD implementation. As such: It would be sensible when implementing the Directive if this risk-based approach was adopted. It would also be sensible to incorporate, wherever possible, work already undertaken by Member States to implement existing Directives, such as the Strategic Environmental Assessment Directive. It would result in a Directive applied at a high level, giving the necessary freedom within regions to characterise GEnS, and to fill the gap between the strategic goals and targets identified in the proposed Directive. A working definition of GEnS applied in this way should be compatible with sustainable use, and will be achieved when all human pressures are sustainable at the scale of the management region. Consistency with existing definitions of, and Governmental commitments to, adoption of the Ecosystem Approach, and the four Strategic Goals adopted by the Marine Strategy would be achieved. The definition of GEnS in the MSD, which should take account of the need for sustainable use of the environment, appears to differ from the definition of unimpacted reference levels for Good Ecological Status under the WFD. There will need to be a working relationship between these two Directives that accounts for the different definitions of GEnS and Good Ecological Status. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 3 Based on this approach the general (normative) definition of GEnS could be drafted so that; “The values of the biological quality elements of European Regional Seas are at levels which are sustainable at the scale of the management region”. Scope of the initial assessment of environmental status Many of the techniques necessary to sample key characteristics and major threats of human activities are already available to Member States, although some are of limited regional distribution and duration. Some additional work will be necessary to measure and standardise: temperature and salinity gradients in shelf seas, primary and secondary productivity, productivity of the invertebrate fauna, population dynamics of all species of marine mammal and seabird, Work will also be necessary to agree criteria for producing coherent habitat maps of Regional Seas. Further development of coherent international databases and monitoring standardisation within Europe will be necessary to ensure that trans-boundary issues can be effectively dealt with. The costs of an initial assessment of European waters will depend entirely on the scope and breadth of the parameters chosen to define GEnS and the scale at which to apply them. In addition to the monitoring and characterisation described in the Directive there will also need to be resources allocated to data management, assessment and reporting of data. Costs of this activity are unknown but will be significant. A provisional analysis suggests that the current annual costs of marine monitoring in the UK (excluding all associated marine management activity) are c.£26m, of which a significant proportion is allocated to fisheries monitoring. The potential cost of further monitoring to complete an initial assessment on the scale of that outlined in Annex II of the draft Directive, could be c.£19m. There is proven ability in the UK to integrate and assess comprehensive national datasets and report on status, however there is a substantial cost associated with this activity. There is insufficient monitoring of the pressures of human activities. Additional funding will be required to identify links between the pressures of human activity and trends in the physical and biological environment. There are insufficient measures of salinity gradients and trends, and other aspects of water chemistry relevant to likely trends in acidification. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 4 1 Introduction The European Commission has published a proposal for a Marine Strategy Directive (MSD) to underpin its Marine Thematic Strategy, which aims to achieve Good Environmental Status (GEnS) in the marine environment by 2021. As currently drafted, it requires Member States to assess the status of their marine waters, and determine a set of characteristics for GEnS based on generic qualitative descriptors developed by the Commission. The MSD then requires the establishment of environmental targets and monitoring programmes together with programmes of measures needed to manage human activity that will lead to GEnS being achieved. The MSD is of particular interest to the UK in view of its extensive continental shelf which is over three times that of the terrestrial environment. The Government supports action to better protect Europe’s seas, however, there is a wide range of concerns over what GEnS in the marine environment, as required by the MSD, might look like in practice. There is currently considerable uncertainty over the parameters that will define GEnS, what measures will need to be brought forward to achieve it and the benefits, costs and practicality of achieving GEnS. To investigate these issues, this paper has focussed on GEnS, and particularly on: An evaluation of Annex II to the draft Directive which provides a high-level, non-exhaustive list of elements that constitute GEnS; (section 2) The identification and critical evaluation of what a package of generic qualitative descriptors of GES might look like based on Annex II to the draft Directive; (section 3) and Based on the above elements, an evaluation of the scope of the initial assessment of environmental status that Member States will be required to undertake, including benefits, costs and practicality; (section 4) This paper has been prepared for Defra, UK, and is based on consultation and discussion amongst the UK government, Agencies, industry, science and conservation community, published guidance to support the development of the Marine Strategy, and a workshop held in London on 24th February 2006. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 5 2 An evaluation of Annex II to the draft Directive Article 7 of the proposed Directive requires Member States to undertake an initial assessment of their waters based on their physical and biological status, the predominant pressures and impacts that might adversely affect the environment, and a socio-economic analysis of their use and costs of degradation. Annex II and the tables therein list characteristics, pressures and impacts that should be considered in such an assessment (EC, 2005). An important issue in the planning of an initial assessment is the scale at which ecosystem processes operate and human activities impact the environment. Whatever process is adopted, it is important to recognise that ecosystem components can be assessed effectively at multiple scales, and that careful decisions will need to be made to select the scale most appropriate to the regional or sub-regional monitoring programmes. One consideration will relate to the natural or made-made factors that are responsible for structuring the ecosystem. Although some human activities can have a major local impact, these may be of low significance at the scale of a regional sea. Monitoring and assessment of such impacts needs to be proportionate, cost-effective and based on a clear understanding of their importance. There are also temporal considerations, particularly in relation to the frequency and seasonality with which data are collected. It should not be assumed that the intra and inter-annual variations in ecosystem processes will be common to all Member States, and will respond consistently to the pressures of human impacts. The extent and duration of sampling necessary for an initial assessment will need to be designed with this in mind, and will be a function of the statistical power of surveys to provide robust data from which conclusions can be drawn. This section provides a detailed evaluation of the Tables provided in Annex II, describing the characteristics of European waters, and the pressures and impacts to which they are exposed. 2.1 Annex II, Table 1 - Characteristics Article 7 of the proposed Directive makes it clear that the initial assessment will comprise an analysis of the ‘essential characteristics and current environmental status’ of European waters, including the relevant provisions of the Water Framework Directive (WFD), and based on the non-exhaustive list in Table 1 (Annex II). It is not clear what is meant by ‘essential characteristics and current environmental status’, and further clarification should be sought from the Commission. This could be interpreted to mean that Member States should only collect data from important and representative ‘essential characteristics’ of the marine environment and use these data in the determination of GEnS. Under these circumstances it will be important that the selection of characteristics in Table 1 (Annex II) is appropriate for this task, and considers their importance and role in the environment, and the practicality of data collection. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 6 The alternative interpretation is that the description of ‘essential characteristics’ is intended to be a more extensive data collection exercise to form a comprehensive baseline characterisation of the marine environment. The use of ‘non-exhaustive’ in relation to the already detailed list of elements in Annex II suggests that the coverage is intended to be thorough. After undertaking this broad description, it might be sensible if a more limited selection of ecosystem components contributed to a subsequent assessment of current environmental status. This approach will have considerably greater implications for monitoring and assessment effort than a more targeted assessment exercise. In either case, the ‘non-exhaustive’ list of elements in Table 1 of Annex II must at least be sufficient to report GEnS. The list of characteristics in Table 1 of Annex II covers the habitat types, biological components, physico-chemical components and other features. The approach is consistent with the selection of hydro-morphological and biological elements under the WFD, although the focus on maintenance of water quality in the WFD requires monitoring of only macrophytes, macroalgae, phytoplankton, macrobenthos and fish in transitional waters. Less comprehensive approaches are also taken by the Habitats and Birds Directives and OSPAR Annex V, which provide lists of species and habitats as specific items for development of management measures and as proposals for Ecological Quality Objectives (EcoQO). Table 1 (Annex II) is therefore a much more comprehensive description of the marine environment than has been provided by previous European legislation. It includes a mixture of ecological components (plankton, seabirds, etc) at species, population and community levels, together with attributes of ecosystems such as primary and secondary productivity. However, this approach is unstructured, and the inclusion of categories for ‘all other species’ and ‘other special areas’, reinforces the impression that an initial assessment could have a very wide scope. No attempt has been made to justify the contents of Table 1 as ‘essential characteristics’, and the reference to the list as ‘nonexhaustive’ suggests that further elements will need to be included. The scope of the characteristics is very broad, and goes well beyond our current monitoring capability in the marine environment. For example, we currently have insufficient data to describe in full the following listed characteristics, and the financial implications of data collection will be substantial (section 4.2): Typical phytoplankton and zooplankton species, seasonal and geographical variability and estimates of primary and secondary productivity. Invertebrate bottom fauna including species composition, biomass, productivity and annual/seasonal variability. Structure of fish populations including the abundance, distribution and age/size structure. Population dynamics, natural and actual range and status of all species of marine mammal and seabird. There is overlap in the contents of the three main subheadings that deal with the different types of characteristics. For example, although the section ‘physical and chemical features’ explicitly mentions water depth, temperature and salinity, these characteristics are also unnecessarily included in the subsequent description of FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 7 ‘habitat types’. In all sections of the Table, the criteria for inclusion of routine physical and biologic measures in assessments should be related to their role in physical processes and ecosystem function rather than simply the ease of measurement. The contents and presentation of the characteristics in Table 1 suggest that the initial assessment is intended to be a comprehensive baseline characterisation of marine waters by Member States. It is difficult to see how the status of the ecosystem can be determined for each of these components. It will, therefore, be necessary to select ecosystem components from this broad characterisation for monitoring, assessment, and subsequent determination of GEnS. No guidance is provided on the link between the contents of Table 1 and the set of descriptors required in the recognition of GEnS. In addition to the generic listing of elements of the marine environment, Table 1 also refers to those species, habitats and communities that are already protected under existing Habitats and Birds Directives legislation. It is difficult to categorise some of these as, for example, the protection of the bottle-nose dolphin and some species of birds requires conservation of habitat, so it is recommended that all such specific obligations are included in a separate part of the Annex. Habitat assessment can then focus only on representative habitat types, taking account of their functional role and spatial scale. In the section ‘habitat types’, the use of the general category ‘other special areas’ may exclude important features that are not necessarily habitats, such as spawning grounds, fronts or other areas of ecological importance. An alternative title for this category might be ‘other areas for particular attention’. In addition to these important structural components of the ecosystem, there are other attributes of the biological characteristics such as species diversity and ecosystem processes that are not direct biological properties but are functions of the entire ecosystem. These attributes are sometimes referred to as emergent properties. They are important because they provide information about the functioning (i.e. rate processes) and status of the ecosystem, and have been widely perceived as additional and potentially useful indicators of environmental status (de Jonge et al., 2006; Elliott et al., 2006a). The ecosystem characteristics needed for status assessment should therefore be selected carefully and be as comprehensive as possible, and incorporate all the necessary structural and functional attributes of populations and communities. In the final section of Table 1 (Annex II) of the proposed Directive ‘Other features’, the reference to nutrient enrichment inputs and chemical pollution duplicates the more comprehensive listing of pressures and impacts in the subsequent Table 2. It also seems unnecessary to highlight such miscellaneous features as dumped munitions, as a process is already in place to report and manage them, and additional monitoring is likely to be unnecessary and potentially dangerous. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 8 The other important part of an initial assessment programme will be an evaluation of the consequence of the pressures caused by human activities in the marine environment. Although most references to pressures are in Table 2 of Annex II, three of the last four bullets in the section ‘biological elements’ require ‘a description of the main threats’ to marine mammals, seabirds and all other species. This seems unnecessary duplication as they are listed fully in Table 2. 2.2 Annex II. Table 2 - Pressures and impacts In principle the approach adopted in Table 2 to categorise pressures of human activities is sensible and can be used as the basis for a structured assessment. It is entirely consistent with the Driver, Pressure, State, Impact, Response (DPSIR) approach, which is a convenient way to classify ecosystem components for the selection of indicators (IIED, 2002). Generic headings for physical / biological disturbance and toxic / non-toxic contamination will apply to all European waters, and are a good starting point. More detailed listing of activities against each pressure will not be helpful as the extent to which they are relevant to all European Seas will depend on the economic activities that are undertaken in the region. Some flexibility will be needed to account for region-specific activities. The consultation of interested parties described in the Directive recognised that climate change and unsustainable fisheries are two of the most important pressures in the marine environment, and this is supported by a wide range of recent research and analysis (Defra, 2005; OSPAR, 2000b). There are some important omissions and inconsistencies in the Table 2 list: The apparent inclusion of commercial fishing under Selective Extraction of Species (biological disturbance), but not under Physical Damage (siltation, abrasion) is misleading and does not take account of the wider ecosystem impacts of fishing activity. There is no mention of climate change and, for example, the effects of ocean acidification, and these pressures will become increasingly important for our understanding of future trends observed in the ecosystem. The addition of marine litter to the category non-toxic contamination would be sensible. It is not clear why noise impacts are classified as non-physical disturbances. It is not clear why visual impacts are required as part of an initial assessment. Such effects will only influence stakeholders, not characteristics of the ecosystem. Categories of pressure in Annex II correspond closely with those identified in UK advice to support the Habitats and Birds Directives, and show many similarities with those identified by OSPAR when undertaking the assessment of human impacts in the North Sea for the recent Quality Status Report (OSPAR, 2000b). Article 7 refers to the need to assess the pressures, the extent to which they mix, and ‘discernable trends’. An initial assessment of environmental characteristics will not be sufficient without a historic context on which to base the assessment of GEnS. This would be a useful product once the initial FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 9 assessment of current environmental status was complete, and would make use of trend data for the pressures of human activities to identify key threats and assess whether change to the environmental status was likely, and to plan suitable mitigation. Corresponding trend data for the biological and physical characteristics may also be required. However, interpretation of the causes of change in all datasets will require a detailed understanding of the relative role of natural processes, and the effects of climate change compared to those of human activity. 2.3 Conclusions As currently drafted, Annex II of the Directive suggests that an initial assessment of the marine environment will have a very broad scope, and correspondingly high cost. It is not apparent whether the initial assessment (based on Annex II) is intended to be a comprehensive report of the status of European Seas, from which a smaller number of selected characteristics are used to determine on GEnS, or whether all components of Annex II are intended to be used both in an initial assessment and for the determination of GEnS. UK stakeholders confirmed that it would be sensible for the Directive to build on existing activity in OSPAR and EU Directives to monitor and characterise the marine environment, and to focus sampling activity of measurable components that are already part of current activities. There is a precedent in existing EU legislation (Habitats and Birds Directives) for the use of a risk-based approach to selecting key components and attributes of the ecosystem, and the most significant pressures of human activities on them. Part of this process would require a logical subdivision of the entire marine environment, rather than rely on the text-based approach presented in Table 1 of Annex II. It would be helpful when implementing the Directive if this approach was incorporated in the initial assessment (further details of such an approach are described in Annex 1). 3 The identification and critical evaluation of what a package of generic qualitative descriptors of GEnS might look like. Article 8 of the proposed Directive states that the Commission will, after the date of its entry into force and after consultation, lay down generic qualitative descriptors, detailed criteria and standards for the recognition of GEnS. Without knowing the parameters or principles that will underpin the definition of GEnS, and the extent to which it will place additional burdens on Member States, it may be difficult for them to judge the scale and extent of further assessment and management measures that will be required to achieve the initial assessment. This will have major implications for the resources necessary to complete the work and whether the final proposals are affordable (section 4.2). FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 10 It will be necessary to incorporate, wherever possible, work already undertaken by Member States to implement the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) Directive, WFD and Habitats and Birds Directives. The inshore boundary proposed for the EMS will be the national baselines from which the extent of territorial waters is measured1, and so will include the coastal waters defined under the WFD, and the marine waters in which the Habitats and Birds Directives apply (EC, 2005; EU, 1979; EU, 1992). Work is already underway in several international fora to describe the status of specific aspects of marine ecosystems. In addition to HELCOM, OSPAR and the Barcelona Convention there is activity in other regional organisations such as the North Atlantic Salmon Commission, the Agreement on Small Cetaceans of the Baltic and North Seas (ASCOBANS), and the North Atlantic Marine Mammals Commission. Although OSPAR has the broadest regional scope, it would be sensible when implementing the Directive if a mechanism was developed by the Commission to take account of all current activity on status assessment. It is crucial to be clear at the earliest opportunity what parameters define GEnS, and to base them on existing commitments to deliver sustainable management of human activities in European Seas, taking account of the Vision and Strategic goals (EC, 2004a; EC, 2004b). In the absence of a complete understanding of the effects of human activities, the practical implementation of the Directive will need to make greater use of adaptive management, where both research science and government contribute to the development of effective management measures. This will need to incorporate the needs of offshore industries and be compatible with their sectoral objectives for sustainable development, removing regulatory uncertainly as far as possible by providing a clear definition of GEnS. This will be a major challenge as there is a recognised non-linearity in the link between the magnitude of effort and the response of the ecosystem, suggesting that the adaptive management process will need to be flexible and yet provide a degree of certainty. It is not clear from the draft Directive how GEnS will be defined, or the extent to which the generic descriptors will be based on existing approaches outlined in, for example, the WFD and the Habitats and Birds Directives. The context of the draft makes it clear, however, that it will be based on the principles of the 6 th Environment Action Programme, and will have the overall aim to promote sustainable use of the seas and conserve marine ecosystems. In the absence of a definition of GEnS, this section explores an approach to defining generic qualitative descriptors, detailed criteria and standards for the recognition of GEnS, based on the Strategic Goals of the EMS and using appropriate objectives and indicators, and taking account of current methods adopted by the WFD and Habitats and Birds Directives. 1 seaward of the Lowest Astronomical Tide and bay closing lines in England and Wales, or seaward of Mean Low Water Spring Mark and Bay closing lines in Scotland, and other straight lines joining islands on the west coast. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 11 3.1 Generic descriptors environments. of GEnS in sustainably exploited marine The definition of Environmental Status in the European Marine Strategy (Article 1) is “the overall state of the environment in marine waters, taking into account the structure, function and processes of the constituent marine ecosystems together with natural physiographic, geographic and climatic factors, as well as physical and chemical conditions including those resulting from human activities in the area concerned” (EC, 2005). Sustainable human impacts modify marine ecosystems. Identifying a link between GEnS and sustainable use is consistent with existing definitions of, and Governmental commitments to, adoption of the Ecosystem Approach (CONSSO, 2002; Defra, 2002; Elliott et al., 2006b; Laffoley et al., 2004; UNEP, 1992). A working definition of GEnS should therefore be compatible with sustainable use, in a way that GEnS is achieved when all human pressures are sustainable at the scale of the management region. At the highest level, the definition of GEnS should therefore include the physico-chemical features of the environment that are necessary for sustainable biological communities to develop, allowing free access to migratory species and limiting the adverse impacts of invasive species on ecosystem function. There would be merit in developing descriptors of GEnS so that they are consistent with this definition. During preparations for the Rotterdam Stakeholder Conference in 2004 a set of four Strategic Goals were identified for the EMS, each based on the principle of sustainable management of European Seas and the conservation of marine ecosystems. Each of these high-level Goals can be unpacked to identify the many legislative drivers which already exist and are currently in operation. There would be benefits if these underpinned the definition of GEnS of European seas (EC, 2004b). 3.1.1 Objectives and indicators in a management framework The management framework to achieve GEnS will be most effective when based on objectives, indicators, targets and limits. At a high level, goals such as ‘halt biodiversity decline’ will describe the desired status of the ecosystem. One of the difficulties of such high-level goals is making them easily interpreted and expressed in a way that shows they are practical and achievable, as well as reflecting sustainable ecosystem structure and function. To be effective, the management framework must make them operational using more specific and meaningful objectives that are more clearly linked to management of human activities. The process of defining generic descriptors should focus on the pressures caused by the most damaging human activities, and the probability that they compromise sustainability, rather than focus on the state of the marine environment. This will require a greater understanding of the links between key pressures and the state of the marine environment, primarily focussed on the most damaging activities in European Seas (OSPAR, 2000b). Variability in the natural FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 12 environment and the influence of widespread pressures such as fishing activity, can mask the subtle changes due to impacts of site-specific pressures, and complicates the accurate measurement of error. 3.1.2 Co-ordinating GEnS with the Habitats and Birds Directives Although the goals of the Habitats and Birds Directives are clearly stated, the Directives do not specify precisely what form the conservation objectives should take, or what role they should play in site management. In the UK, the conservation objectives have been interpreted as the target condition of an interest feature that management should attain. The identification of ‘limits of acceptable change’ of interest features to support such assessments is complex and has led to varied interpretation. For some components of the ecosystem such as seabed habitats, the definition of objectives and selection of indicators is severely limited by current understanding of the minimum extent of different habitats that are required to maintain viability and the optimal target that is sufficient to support sustainable exploitation of, for example, seabed fisheries and mineral extraction. In principle, there is no reason why limits of acceptable change cannot be incorporated into the framework of objectives and indicators described above, and deliver conservation objectives that are consistent with the definition of GEnS. 3.1.3 Co-ordinating GEnS with the Water Framework Directive Article 7 of the proposed Directive states that the analysis of European waters should take account of coastal and transitional water biological elements, water quality and hydromorphological status required by the WFD. Good Ecological Status (GEcS) is defined in the WFD in terms of the quality of the biological community, and the characteristics of the hydrological and chemical environment. As no absolute standards for biological quality can be set which apply across the Community because of ecological variability, GEcS is related to, and allows some departure from, the biological community which would be expected under conditions of minimal anthropogenic impact. Good chemical status is defined in terms of compliance with the quality standards established for chemical substances at European level. Currently in the UK, the general criteria for achieving GEcS for the biological elements relates to measures which are slightly outside type-specific reference levels. The WFD allows several methods of defining reference levels for minimal anthropogenic impact, using either spatially based data, hindcasting (i.e. a retrospective assessment) or modelling output, a combination of these methods or expert judgement. There are difficulties with this approach as type-specific control areas are difficult to find, predictive models are not yet good enough for decision making, and hindcasting leads to debate about when would be an appropriate reference date. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 13 This approach to defining reference levels under the WFD appears to differ from the definition of GEnS, which takes account of need for sustainable use of the environment. There will, therefore, need to be a working relationship between the two Directives that accounts for the different definitions of GEnS and GEcS. This could be achieved by acknowledging that the WFD is primarily aimed at improving and maintaining water quality in inshore waters (generally within 1 nautical mile (nm)), while the overall aim of the MSD is to achieve good environmental status for all the waters between the coast and the 200 mile limit (at least). In coastal waters, the WFD is primarily concerned with water quality and focussed on rigorous inshore management of the sources of land based pollution. The monitoring and assessment of macro-algae and macrophytes in coastal waters should remain within the remit of the WFD as these populations rarely occur offshore. If the status of phytoplankton and macrobenthos in coastal waters under the WFD is ‘good’, then limited assessment will be necessary in waters under the MSD, assuming that the source of pressures affecting these populations is from land. This approach will be equivalent to that already adopted by OSPAR under the Comprehensive Procedure. If assessment of phytoplankton and macrobenthos in coastal waters under the WFD results in moderate or poor status, then further monitoring under the MSD in the waters beyond 1nm (3nm in Scotland) may be required. For all other components of the ecosystem, objectives and supporting indicators should be identified under the MSD and applied from the baseline to the limits of national jurisdiction. In these waters, descriptors of GEnS would benefit from being more strategic than those defining GEcS, and take account of the principle of sustainable development when selecting reference conditions against which to compare current status. Targeted use of assessment and monitoring to reduce both volume of data and excessive detail will enable this to occur. On a gradient of ecosystem status ranging from irreversibly damaged to pristine and unimpacted (Figure 3.1.3.1) the location of GEnS must reflect healthy sustainable ecosystems but will not be the unimpacted state. The location on this gradient of the current state of European Seas in relation to GEnS is a primary purpose of the initial assessment process of the MSD. Current state? Irreversible damage GEnS Pristine environment Fig 3.1.3.1. An illustration of a hypothetical impact gradient in marine ecosystems from irreversibly damaged to pristine and unimpacted. The location of GEnS on this gradient should take account of the principle of sustainable development. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 14 Throughout Europe there is ongoing activity by expert groups to ensure calibration and standardisation of assessment methods to support the WFD, and these groups are well placed to share their expertise and experience with the Regional Seas Conventions in determining GEnS. There is much that can be learnt from the inter-calibration activity that has already been undertaken and endorsed by the Commission, and this should be build upon rather than developing new committees and structures. 3.1.4 Descriptors of Good Environmental Status In view of the regional variability in environmental characteristics and pressures, and the benefits of applying a risk-based approach to determining the extent of regional threats, it is sensible for the Directive to leave determination of GEnS to each Marine Region and for the Commission to produce generic qualitative descriptors. A sensible approach would be for the Commission to provide generic guidance on the descriptors of GEnS that would apply to the characteristics of the marine environment across all Regional Seas. This would follow the principle adopted by the WFD, where generic definitions of condition provided in the Directive are then interpreted by Member States so that they become regionally relevant. In the WFD the general (normative) definition of GEcS in coastal waters relates to slight deviation from undisturbed conditions. “The values of the biological quality elements for the surface water body type show low levels of distortion resulting from human activity, but deviate only slightly from those normally associated with the surface water body type under undisturbed conditions” (EU, 2000). There are also comparable definitions for hydro-morphological and physico-chemical conditions. In the MSD, this definition needs to reflect the importance of sustainable use. This is consistent with existing definitions of, and Governmental commitments to, implementation of the Ecosystem Approach, and the four Strategic Goals adopted by the Marine Strategy. Based on this approach the general (normative) definition of GEnS could be drafted along the following lines; 1. “The values of the biological quality elements of European Regional Seas are at levels which are sustainable at the scale of the management region”. For the purposes of ecological classification, a specific description of GEnS applied to each of the biological characteristics of European Seas (plankton and microorganisms, macrophytes and macro-algae, fish, marine mammals, reptiles, seabirds) could be; FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 15 “Populations, species and communities that productive and resilient to environmental change”. are diverse, Other general (normative) definitions of GEnS related to the physical components of the marine environment will be required. These will ensure that the state of the physical environment allows the development of sustainable species, populations and communities. Such definitions could be drafted as follows: 2. “Hydro-morphological conditions are consistent with the achievement of the values for the biological quality elements specified above”. 3. “Water chemistry is within levels that support the functioning of the ecosystem and the achievement of the values for the biological quality elements specified above”. 4. “Concentrations of specific synthetic and non-synthetic pollutants are not in excess of current standards (e.g. are within Environmental Quality Standards (EQS))” In view of the wide diversity of environments within European Seas it is not possible or necessary to provide more detailed targets and limits in the Directive itself. It should be the responsibility of the Member States, working co-operatively at the regional sea level, to provide region-specific reference condition descriptions for the characteristics of the marine environment. These would describe the detailed properties of each ecosystem component and attribute that corresponded with good status, and would be equivalent to the Type Specific Reference Condition Descriptions provided by Member States under the WFD to describe GEcS. Under the WFD, these reference condition descriptions are very specific to the region for which they are prepared, and are used with site monitoring as part of the classification process. For example, in the UK the reference conditions for benthic macro-invertebrates in coastal water type 2 are drafted as follows (TAG, 2004): ‘Fine sands in the shallow sublittoral, may be characterised by the polychaete Nephtys cirrosa and amphipod Bathyporeia spp. The diversity can be reduced due to physical disturbance from strong tidal streams or wave action. In more compacted sands venerid bivalves such as Chamelea gallina may dominate. The bivalve Fabulina fabula and the polychaete Magelona mirabilis may also be characteristic.’ Similar Reference Conditions should be provided for each component of the marine environment at an appropriate scale given the MSD covers out to the 200 mile limit, sub-divided according to a logical and comprehensive listing process. Although comparison with the WFD is useful in this context, it would not be appropriate to replicate the level of detail in the WFD throughout European seas. In principle, such descriptions should ensure that all the necessary structural and functional attributes of the ecosystem are considered, and should refer to genetic, trophic and structural aspects of the marine environment. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 16 Check-lists of these attributes, such those described in Table 3.1.4.1, will help to ensure that descriptions of ecosystem reference conditions are comprehensive. Table 3.1.4.1. Possible structural and functional attributes of marine ecosystems that should be considered when developing descriptions of reference conditions in regional seas. Modified from (Elliott et al., 2006a). Attribute 1. spatial extent of biotopes, habitats and/or ecosystems are as expected and self-sustaining under the natural physico-chemical conditions 2. community diversity and structure, population abundance and reproduction, and species distribution are as expected under natural prevailing conditions, and resilient to natural disturbances S 3. populations of threatened and/or protected species are sustainable S, F 4. genetic diversity of farmed and wild-caught species is not compromised S 5. nutrient dynamics are as expected under the prevailing hydrographic conditions (e.g. residence time) and not greatly modified by anthropogenic activities F 6. invasive, alien or introduced species are absent or in low numbers and have not affected the integrity of other species, the habitat or ecosystem 3.2 Structural (S) or Functional (F) S, F S, F 7. community functioning and functional groups, e.g. as shown by the trophic structure, are as expected and sustainable/stable in the long-term F 8. there is no physical or chemical disruption in connectivity of migration routes (i.e. no population fragmentation) within and between ecosystems S, F Learning from national and regional activity The Regional Seas Conventions are well placed to contribute to work on GEnS as the OSPAR definition of Ecological Quality derived to support the North Sea EcoQO pilot project (Box 1) is similar to that for Environmental Status given in Article 1. There are, however, many differences in interpretation which will need to be overcome to ensure successful integration of the two approaches (OSPAR, 2005). Important amongst these is the more flexible methodology used to define EcoQO’s, based on a mixture of indicators and descriptors of physical and biological elements, and a less structured approach to the timescales required to achieve the aims of the different OSPAR Strategies. The recent UK report into the state of the marine environment, Charting Progress, (Defra, 2005) has provided a good example of an assessment process that targets key pressures on the ecosystem (Table 3.2.1). FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 17 Box 1. Definition of Environmental Status in the European Marine Strategy (Article 1), “the overall state of the environment in marine waters, taking into account the structure, function and processes of the constituent marine ecosystems together with natural physiographic, geographic and climatic factors, as well as physical and chemical conditions including those resulting from human activities in the area concerned” (EC, 2005). The OSPAR definition of Marine Ecological Quality, (OSPAR, 2005) “An overall expression of the structure and function of the marine ecosystem, taking into account the biological community and natural physiographic, geographic and chemical conditions, including those resulting from human activities” In addition to specific reviews of the physical and biological components in UK seas, the assessment process evaluated the key interactions with human activities, described the recent trend in the data, the current status and confidence in the assessment. This approach could provide the basis for the development of a generic description on which to base regional sea objectives. Table 4.2.1. Ecosystem characteristics and key pressures of human activities used in the recent assessment of UK seas (Defra, 2005). Key factors and pressures Water Quality Riverine inputs. Direct discharges of specified metals, lindane & PAH from point & diffuse sources Radionuclides Inputs from point and diffuse sources Oil from accidental spills Oil from refineries and offshore oil and gas Sewage discharges and microbiological Discharges and emissions of nutrients from human activities Coastal habitats Coastal development, erosion, sea level rise and climate change Beach litter and human debris Benthic communities and Human activities causing physical disturbance associated sea floor Chemical contamination habitat Fish Commercial fishing Industrial activities and contamination Aquaculture and ecosystem variability Plankton Climate change Nutrients inputs Marine mammals Commercial fishing Other (apart from commercial fishing) anthropogenic activities and climate change Seabirds Climate change and food sources Commercial fishing, pollution and oil spills Marine Species (Biodiversity) Introduction of species from shipping and climate change General climate change FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 18 4 An evaluation of the scope of the initial assessment, including benefits, costs and practicality Article 7 of the MSD requires Member States to make an initial assessment of their European marine waters, based on the characteristics and current status of those waters, and the predominant pressures and impacts on the environment. The scope of such an assessment depends entirely on how GEnS is defined and the extent of monitoring that is required to support this definition. This section considers the benefits, costs and practicality of undertaking such an assessment, and identifies areas where additional assessment and monitoring might need to be undertaken. 4.1 Practicality and benefits Many of the techniques necessary to sample key characteristics and major threats of human activities are already available to Member States and are often already implemented, although some are of limited regional distribution and duration. The monitoring required to undertake an initial assessment is therefore within the scope of European Marine Institutes and Agencies and can be undertaken provided that it is resourced adequately. Based on the characteristics listed in Table 1 (Annex II), however, some additional work will be necessary to agree on the best methods for measuring and standardising: temperature and salinity gradients in shelf seas, primary and secondary productivity, productivity of the invertebrate fauna, population dynamics of all species of marine mammal and seabird, Work will also be necessary to agree criteria for producing coherent habitat maps of Regional Seas. Work is already underway to coordinate such activity between Member States, and Working Groups in the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) have made particular progress in relation to coherent international databases and monitoring standardisation. Further development of these approaches will be necessary to ensure that trans-boundary issues can be effectively dealt with. Equivalent tasks will be necessary to compile an inventory of human activities in the marine environment, and of land-based activities which will impact marine ecosystems. Sufficient information on the effects of these activities will be necessary so that links can be made with adverse effects on specific ecosystem components. Compilations and reviews of applied research which describe the response of marine ecosystems to adverse effects will become increasingly valuable (Defra, 2006). There will be technical challenges in relation to collecting information describing the pressures and impacts of noise, and the introduction of microbial pathogens, non-native species and translocations. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 19 Integrated assessments of the marine environment are an important part of the process of implementing the ecosystem approach, and have four components (ICES, 2005): • • • • Evaluation of ecosystem status Compilation of human activities Evaluation of relevant ecosystem policies Evaluation of relevant social and economic policies The emphasis in this paper has been on evaluating ecosystem status using knowledge of ecosystem structure, function and quality, but in addition it is necessary to collate inventories of human activities that are regulated by these policies and that may adversely impact those properties. In addition to understanding and listing existing drivers and commitments to conservation action, it will also be necessary to identify economic and social policies that apply in the Regional Sea and that describe the uses of European waters that are required by society. Only by considering current economic, social and ecosystem policies together will it be possible for all Member States to evaluate their progress towards implementing the Directive and associated legal obligations and commitments, and the achievement of sustainable development. A holistic view such as this will allow Member States to evaluate the success of management in the marine environment and address any deficiencies in the management process. In Article 7 (c) it is unclear to what extent an analysis of ‘the cost of degradation of the marine environment’ will form part of this collation of social and economic policies, and further clarification should be provided by the Commission to highlight the additional data that would be required to address this. 4.2 Cost It has been assumed in this section that the initial assessment will focus only on those characteristics of European waters that are needed to identify GEnS, and will continue to be subject to routine monitoring in subsequent years. A more comprehensive baseline characterisation of all physical and biological components of the marine environment would be very difficult to cost accurately. The UK is currently working towards an accessible, comprehensive description of the scope and costs of all current marine monitoring activity. During the preparation of these data it will be possible to also identify the potential costs of more intensive assessment and monitoring that is likely to be required under the MSD, however, this is not yet complete. There are two main issues which influence the scale of an initial assessment. A comprehensive initial assessment of European seas, based on all the characteristics in Annex II of the draft Directive, will require higher cost than a more limited assessment programme using a risk-based approach targeting important threats and key ecosystem characteristics. As already described, the characteristics listed in Annex II do not form the basis of a FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 20 practical assessment process and it would be more sensible if the MSD revised the approach. Costs associated with undertaking a comprehensive initial assessment will be greater than the subsequent costs of undertaking routine monitoring, due to additional considerations such as cost of infrastructure, and training and administration required to implement and report on new monitoring programmes. In addition to the costs of initial monitoring it will also be necessary to take account of the cumulative cost of long-term, low level monitoring programmes. In view of the many trans-boundary issues which will occur as a result of the planning and completion of an initial assessment, it is essential that there is regional cooperation in the assessment and reporting of monitoring data. The OSPAR Quality Status Report is a good example of this integrated approach, where comprehensive assessments have been completed for key environmental characteristics and human pressures (OSPAR, 2000a; OSPAR, 2006). Regional seas conventions could be encouraged to lead on the planning of initial assessments under the QSR 2010 which are coordinated with the requirements of the MSD (OSPAR, 2006). During the development of the QSR 2010 it will be important to identify the contribution made by national assessments, so that the practical links between future Regional Seas Convention Reports and the assessments required under the MSD can also be determined. While more integrated versions of this approach are currently under development in ICES and elsewhere, it is not necessary to wait for the completion of the assessment before taking management action. Immediate action must be taken on those pressures which are already well described and for which the links with sensitive characteristics of the environment are already understood. Further research to determine the precise links between the pressures of human activities and environmental response will be necessary to support this assessment. The UK Marine Monitoring and Assessment Strategy (UKMMAS) has been developed to coordinate current monitoring activity and evaluate the additional requirements necessary to achieve UK obligations. Additional monitoring costs under the EMS will depend entirely on the scope and breadth of the parameters chosen to define good environmental status. A focus on the somewhat limited range of parameters currently applied in the OSPAR JAMP and the WFD will create a smaller extra cost than a more comprehensive approach. In addition to the monitoring and characterisation described in the Directive there will also need to be resources allocated to the assessment of data. Costs of this activity are unknown but will be significant, and form an essential part of the process. There is considerable uncertainty over the costs of implementing the MSD. A preliminary assessment has been made of the current costs of marine monitoring to the UK, based on the characteristics, pressures and impacts described in Annex II (Table 4.2.1). Activities have only been considered that are necessary to undertake an initial assessment of the UKCS, and where possible exclude costs of more general marine management activity. This compilation has therefore FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 21 focussed on the primary costs of data collection, comprising mainly expenditure on surveys and field sampling, and staff time necessary to complete data collection. Table 4.2.1 Summary of the total monitoring costs to the UK of the existing and potential future monitoring programmes. For further details see Table 4.2.2a and b. Existing UK spend £26m New work costs £19m The total current monitoring costs of those attributes for which there is relatively high confidence in their accuracy (£9.7m) (Table 4.2.2a) are dominated by the costs of marine fisheries monitoring, assessment and data collection. Relatively high costs are also incurred by routine monitoring of bathing waters and shellfish waters (£2.3m), and collection of physical data for the water column and seabed. Additional work for the purposes of an initial assessment under these categories has been estimated at £5.6m. This includes additional work necessary to meet obligations under the Habitats and Birds Directives for designation of offshore SAC (£1.5m), a proposal for a comprehensive UK data stewardship system (£1.5m), and improved monitoring of marine mammals and seabirds in coastal and offshore waters (Table 4.2.2a). Not included in this category, but of interest to the further understanding of UK seabed habitats, is a current proposal in preparation by UK Agencies for a comprehensive remote acoustic mapping programme of the UKCS beyond 12nm. Costs for such a survey could be as much as £25 million per annum over a 10-year period. A second category of monitoring has been identified for which costs are provisional and require further work to improve confidence in them (Table 4.2.2b). Total current costs for this ‘low confidence’ category of monitoring (£16.3m) are dominated by monitoring under the Global Ocean Observing System, and National Marine Monitoring Programme. Potential additional monitoring costs (£13.4) are provisional, but likely to include an extended programme of ocean monitoring and forecasting, a more comprehensive offshore programme for assessing toxic and non-toxic contaminants, and survey work to monitor the effects of offshore developments. It should be emphasised that although some of these data are provisional, they suggest that current total marine monitoring costs for the UK are c.£26m, of which a large proportion is allocated to fisheries monitoring. Potential costs of additional monitoring are approximately £19m, with an additional £37m for a comprehensive offshore remote acoustic survey of the UKCS, should it be considered necessary. Further work is required to revise and improve these costs, and consider the extent to which monitoring of several parameters could be coordinated to improve efficiency. This exercise identified four areas where additional investment would be necessary to undertake an initial assessment of UK seas. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 22 There is proven ability in the UK to integrate and assess comprehensive national datasets and report on status, however there is a substantial cost associated with this activity. There is insufficient monitoring of the pressures of human activities. Additional funding will be required to identify links between the pressures of human activity and trends in the physical and biological environment. There are insufficient measures of salinity gradients and trends, and other aspects of water chemistry relevant to likely trends in acidification. Although it has not been possible to estimate the costs of this additional work, it should be taken into account when considering the implications of an initial assessment by Member States. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 23 Table 4.2.2a. Attributes for which there is relatively high confidence in the accuracy of potential costs of additional work necessary to complete an initial assessment in UK seas based on the characteristics, pressures and impacts described in Annex II of the draft directive. Attribute Existing UK Programme Existing UK New work needed spend (£m) New work Comments costs (£m) Habitat types Identification and mapping of special habitat limited to coastal Natura 0.3 types esp those identified under EU 2000. legislation (habitats and birds directives) or international conventions of special scientific or biodiversity interest Status of protected areas 1.5 Annual cost of offshore site identification and monitoring in UK. Biological Elements population dynamics, natural and actual range and status of all species of marine mammal. JNCC / SMRU (includes 1 2005 SCANS survey ) Estimates of populations needed and by-catch 0.5 Monitoring is for annual cetacean relative abundance, used with decadal 'SCANS' surveys. A description of the population dynamics, natural and actual range and status of all species of seabirds occurring in the region/sub-region. JNCC (Seabirds at Sea Team) 0.1 Offshore SPA site survey monitoring and surveillance 0.8 Annual cost of offshore site identification and monitoring, but part of a 6 year reporting cycle. Other Features A description of incidences of nutrient enrichment-inputs, nutrient cycling (currents and sediment/water interactions), spatial distribution, consequences; OSPAR JAMP 0.4 0.4 Transboundary monitoring and modelling of processes. UK 2007_08 eutrophication assessment. Pressures and Impacts Noise none 0 Commercial and recreational fishing Microbial pathogens Data Stewardship FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. UKCS noise monitoring 0.2 E, W & S data collection 5.5 minimum & extended programme support for environmental integration in CFP 0.5 costs of UK programme to monitor ecosystem effects of fishing (excludes Scotland & NI) Bathing waters and Shell 2.3 fish regs possible addition of flesh sampling in E&W for contaminants (as done in S & NI) 0.2 may be requirement under Bathing Waters Dir. MDIP / MEDAG etc 0.1 1.5 9.7 5.6 24 Table 4.2.2b. Attributes for which there is relatively low confidence in the accuracy of potential costs of additional work necessary to complete an initial assessment in UK seas based on the characteristics, pressures and impacts described in Annex II of the draft directive. Values in brackets (£ million) refer to specific monitoring costs. Physical and chemical features. Biological Elements Attribute Existing UK Programme Existing UK New work needed spend (£m) - annual and seasonal temperature regime GOOS / ICES ARGO 1m GMES 4m predominant currents and estimated recycling/ replacement times; - bathymetric features; Met. Forecasting. 2 UKHO / BGS 1.5 none – A description of the biological communities associated with the predominant habitats. Phyto and zooplankton CPR / MECN; 0.5 1 CPR / MECN (0.5) Other Features Pressures and Impacts Fish populations (see above) A description of the general state of chemical pollution including problem chemicals, sediment contamination, hot spots, health issues (contamination of fish flesh); Pollution – toxic General state non toxic contamination (nutrients) Physical damage Windfarms / dumping FEPA 0.3 further development of WFD tools to support offshore assessment? Primary productivity (0.5) unknown 2 General state (1.8) 2.4 Effects (0.6) 3 (special surveys) 1.8 1 Litter (MCS) 0.4 0.8 Windfarms / dumping FEPA 0.5; 2 Special surveys £1.5m; Inc modelling capacity 16.3 FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. depends on scale and if measurements at depth are required 2 Effects NNMP Yes – including additional work on 4.5 modelling and support for GOOS and GMES new benthic indicators work (1) typical phytoplankton and zooplankton communities benthos 0.5 (species), seasonal and geographical variability, estimates of primary and secondary productivity. Info on the invertebrate bottom fauna including species composition, biomass, productivity and annual/seasonal variability. Primary productivity £0 Information on the structure of fish populations including the abundance, distribution and age/size structure of the populations. New work Comments costs (£) 13.4 25 5 Annex 1. A possible approach to structuring an initial a ssessment This section describes a method of selecting characteristics of the marine environment and linking them to the pressures and impacts caused by human activities. It highlights the benefits of a risk-based approach to the assessment process and the need to understand links between human pressures and their effects on the marine environment. An alternative and more effective approach to structuring the characteristics of the environment would be to replace the text-based approach of Table 1 (Annex II) of the proposed Directive with a simple but comprehensive list of characteristics of the marine environment. Although each category would need to be interpreted so that they are suitable at the regional level, the concept will allow gaps and overlaps in sampling and assessment to be identified more readily. A similar less comprehensive approach has been adopted by OSPAR to structure the preparation of Ecological Quality Objectives (EcoQO), however their categorisation combines specific themes of the OSPAR strategies (i.e. eutrophication) with cross-cutting issues such as threatened and declining species, and an incomplete sub-set of ecosystem characteristics. The WFD also uses a similar method but it only applies a subset of the full list in coastal waters relating to structural aspects of the environment (i.e. morphology, physico-chemical conditions, phytoplankton, macro-algae, macrophytes and macrobenthos). The most important requirement of a fully integrated assessment and management process is to link change in the ecosystem to a manageable human activity, through the pressures which the activities cause (Jennings, 2005). This process can be used to focus the monitoring and assessment activity on the most important characteristics and pressures outlined in Annex II of the proposed Directive. This risk-based approach can be achieved by tabulating lists of mechanisms through which human activities exert pressure on the ecosystem (Annex II, Table 2), relative to a list of ecosystem components and attributes. During the recent comprehensive assessment of UK shelf seas (Defra, 2005), the characteristics of the marine environment and the key environmental threats were identified and an action plan developed to address them. This assessment described all important aspects of the physical characteristics of UK seas, including weather, marine processes and climate, water circulation and sediment transport, using existing datasets (Box 2). A broad range of biological components were included for all habitats, species and including exploited fisheries, and where possible with reference to historic changes and likely future trends. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 26 Box 2. Chapter headings used in the recent assessment of UK seas, describing the review of physical and biological characteristics (Defra 2005). An additional regional assessment was also provided. Physical and Biological Characteristics of the Seas General Weather and Climatic Conditions Sea Temperature Waves Salinity Circulation Sea Level Natural Coastal Changes Sediment Concentration & Transport Marine Habitats Benthos Plankton Fish Seals Cetaceans Breeding Seabirds Human Impacts on Marine Environmental Quality Climate Change Capture Fisheries Aquaculture and Shellfish Harvesting Hazardous substances Nutrients Sewage treatment discharges: (microbiological quality of the coastal environment) Radioactive discharges Oil impacts Construction in the sea and coastal zone Aggregate extraction and sea bed disturbance Dredging of harbours and navigation channels and disposal Litter and waste Introduction of non-native species The risk-based approach is currently adopted during the implementation of the Habitats and Birds Directives, where relevant authorities have a duty to advise on any operations that may cause deterioration of natural habitats, or disturbance of species for which the Natura 2000 site has been designated. The purpose of this advice is to enable relevant authorities to prioritise their work on the management of activities that pose the greatest threat to the favourable condition of interest features. The need for targeted monitoring and assessment activity is a well established principle adopted in the WFD, and, to support the review of impact of human activity on the status of transitional and coastal waters, Member States are required to undertake a pressures and impacts analysis. Information on the significant pressures that surface water and groundwater bodies may be subject to is used to assess the risk that water bodies will fail to meet the Directive’s environmental objectives, and also provides information on confidence in the risk assessment. The WFD pressures and impacts analysis differentiates between water bodies which are most likely to need action to address significant risks early in the planning cycle, from those at low risk for which there may be only a longer-term need for data collection and assessment. It would be logical when implementing the Directive if a similar risk-based approach was adopted, requiring a simplified selection of characteristics of the ecosystem and lists of the significant pressures of human activity. FINAL report for CSA 7061 & ME1412. 27 6 References CONSSO. (2002). Fifth International Conference on the Protection of the North Sea. The Bergen Declaration., 50. de Jonge, V. N., Elliott, M. and Brauer, V. S. (2006). Marine monitoring: Its shortcomings and mismatch with the EU Water Framework Directive’s objectives. Marine Pollution Bulletin in press. Defra. (2002). Safeguarding our Seas. A strategy for the conservation and sustainable development of our marine environment. 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