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MORPHOLOGY
BY
Ypsi Soeria Soemantri, Dra., M.Hum.
1
UNIT 1
INTRODUCTION
The American linguists viewed that there are four levels of linguistics :
semantic level
: deals with meaning
↓
syntactic level
: deals with sentence-structure
↓
morphological level
: deals with word-structure
↓
phonology
: deals with sound systems
The levels were assumed to be ordered in hierarchy, with phonology at the bottom and
semantics at the top. In 1920-1945
American linguists who were many of them
structuralim worked hard to find the theory of how sounds are used to distinguish
meaning in language. They developed and refined the theory of phoneme (Sapir 1925
and other linguists). Their focus gradually shifted to morphology. In 1940-1960,
structuralism was in its high activities. Many linguists investigated the theory of wordsstructure (Bloomfield, Nida) Later Chomsky and his contemporaries present many kinds
of research concerning of the word-structure theories
Some definitions of Morphology
- Morphology is the study of how words are structured (McManis)
-Morphology is the system of categories and rules involved in words
formation and interpretation (O’Grady)
- Morphology is the study of morphemes and their arrangements in forming
words (Nida)
WORD CLASS/SYNTACTIC CATEGORY/PARTS OF SPEECH:
One of the classes to which words allocated on the basis of grammar behavior
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There are two kinds of them:
A.OPEN CLASS items :
they are extendable
●NOUN is a word which can occur
- as a subject or an object of a verb or the object/complement of preposition
-
can be modified by an adjective
-
can be used with determiners
there are 4 kinds of nouns :
count nouns
one ball, two balls
noncount nouns
water, milk
concrete nouns :
chair,hair
something which you
can see and touch
abstract nouns :
management, bravery
something which no
physical form
common nouns :
Human, cat
are words for a kind
of
person,
thing
substsnce
proper nouns
Ann, Texas
●a VERB is a word which occur as apart of a predicate of a sentence.
Verbs can be divided into auxiliary verbs and main verbs.
Two kinds of auxiliary verbs : primary auxiliary ( be,have, and do)
Modal auxiliary (will, can, must,etc)
Main verbs refer to state verbs (state verbs describe states which continue over a
period, eg : be, belive, consider, hope, know, etc) and action verbs (describe
something which happens in a limited time, and has a definite beginning and end,
e.g: ask, come, get, say etc)
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●ADJECTIVE is the word that describe the thing, quality, state, or action which a noun
refer to, eg : black a black hat.
●ADVERB is a word that describe or adds to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, another
adverb, or sentence.
B CLOSED–SYSTEM items :
they cannot be extended
●PRONOUN is a word which replace a noun, eg. she, we.
●CONJUNCTION is a word which joins, words, phrases, or clauses, eg. and, but
●DETERMINER is a word which is used with a noun, and which limits the meaning of
the
quantifiers: some, many.
numerals : the first, two chairs
●ARTICLE is a word like a, the
●PREPOSITION is word like to, for, in, at
●INTERJECTION a word such as ugh!, wow! Which indicate an emotional state
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UNIT 2
MORP AND MORPHEME
A MORP →
is a physical form representing some morpheme in a language. It is a recurrent
distinctive sound (phoneme) or sequence of sounds (phonemes).(Katamba:24)for
example : I parked the car.
The morphs in this sentence : I
/aĬ /
parked /pa:kt/
the
/δe/
car
/ka:/
ALLOMORPS →
If different morphs represent the same morphemes, they are grouped together.
(Katamba;26)
Eg :
One car
one dog
one horse
two cars
two dogs [z]
two horses [iz]
morpheme
plural form
alomorph
morph
/s/
allomorph
allomorph
morph
morph
/z/
/iz/
5
In the other hand,
A MORPHEME →
1. is a minimal linguistic unit which has a meaning or grammatical function.
2.is
the
smallest
correlates
with
difference
the
in
smallest
the
shape
difference
in
of
word
a
word
or
that
sentence
meaning or in grammatical structure. (Katamba : 24)
e.g : untidy consists of two morphemes
un – tidy
↓
↓
1
2
widens consists of ?
morphemes :
wide -en –s
There are two kinds of morphemes
BOUND MORPHEME
The morphemes which always attach to other morpheme (-er,-ist,etc)
MORPHEME
FREE MORPHEM
The morphemes which can stand alone (cat. Chair,etc)
MONOMORPHEMIC consists of one morpheme
eg : dig, fast, a,
POLYMORPHEMES consists of more than one morphemes
e.g : un-educate-ion
mono-cycle-s
EMPTY MORPH →
a surplus building-element which does not realize ANY MORPHEME
(Katamba:38)
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e.g :
noun
+ al
→ adjective
medicine
medicinal
person
personal
sense
sense –u-al
fact
fact – u- al
-u- → empty morph → it does not represent any
morpheme
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UNIT 3
AFFIX
When we find a morpheme that can be attached to the other morpheme, we called
it an affix.
AN AFFIX →
is a letter or sound, or a group of letters or sounds ( a morpheme) which is added
to a word.
There are 3 kinds of affixes:
1. A PREFFIX is an affix attached before a root or stem or base.
e.g : un- kind → un -: prefix
kind : root
2. A SUFFIX is an affix attached after a root.
e.g: lazy –ness → lazy : root
- ness : suffix
3.AN INFIX is an affix attached within a word
e.g : Indonesian language : jari
→ j -em - ari
In order to represent the internal structure of words, it is necessary not only to
identify each of the component morphemes but also to classify these element .
Affixes do not belong to a lexical category and are always bound morpheme and combine
with the root, eg. teach-er means ‘one who teaches’
The internal structure
N
V
Teach
AF
er
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EXERCISES :
1.Write the tree diagram for :
unkind, books, mo
2.BOUND MORPHEMES :
Find the words with
PREFIXES :
SUFFIXES:
Aero- (air) →
noun → verb
Ant- (against)
adjective → verb
Auto- (self)
Bi- (two)
- -- ize
--ment
verb→ noun
--tion
Co- (together)
Dis- (not)
noun→ noun ; … ism
Ex- (out)
…. let
Il- (not)
noun → adjective : --y
Mis- (wrong)
Semi –(half)
.ful
..ed
3.FREE MORPHEMES :
Write other free morphemes
Man
Bet
THE ROOT is a base form or a free morphemes
Write othe roots
4.THE STEM a part of a word that is in existence before inflectional affixes
eg : work → root
work er → stem
worker s
Write other stems.
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5.Isolate them and decide free or bound morphemes
puppies
catsup
succotash entrust
comfortable Massachusetts
unhappy milder bicycle signpost
reconditioned unidirectional
thickness
6. Write several monomorphemes words:
7. Write several polymorphemes words
8.Isolate these words
e,g, : babies → baby : free morpheme
- s bound morphemes
monstrous
undeniable
laziness
fatalities
divisible
fixation
9. In each group of words below, two words have a different morphological structure
than the others :
one has a different type of suffix, and one has no suffix at all. Identify the word that has
no suffix and the word whose suffix is different from the others. Isolate the suffix that
the remaining two words share and give its type and function.
a.rider
b.tresses
c.running
d.tables
colder
melodies
foundling
lens
silver
Bess’s
handling
witches
actor
guess
fling
calculates
10. Divide them into morphemes :
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a. tigers
speakers
b. untimely
uniquely
c. wholesome
gruesome
d untimely
uniquely
e consumed
consumption
f. decorating
decentralizing
g leucocyte
erythrocyte
- divide them into morpheme.
- are there any morphemes which have two allomorphs?
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UNIT 4
AFFIX MORPHEMES
What is an affix morpheme?
DERIVATIONAL MORPHEME
A letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds (a morpheme) which is added to a word,
and which changes the meaning or function of the word.
Inflectional morphemes
morphemes change neither parts of speech nor meaning, but
Affix morphemes
only refine and give extra grammatical information
Derivational morphemes
Morphemes derive (create) some words by either changing the
Meaning or parts of speech
The four characteristics
Inflectional morphemes
1 Do not change meaning or parts of speech
Derivational morpheme
Changing meaning or parts of speech
2 Typically indicate syntactic or semantic Typically indicate semantic relations
relations between different words
within the words
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3 Typically occur with all members of some Typically
large class of morphemes
occur
with
only
some
members of a class of morphemes
4 Typically occurs at the margins of words
Typically occur before inflectional
suffixes.
Most morphemes have SEMANTIC CONTENT (MEANING)
▪ function morphemes (inflectional morphemes)
to provide information about grammatical function (prepositionsarticles,pronouns and
conjunction)
▪ content morphemes (derivational morphemes)
to have some kind of independent, identifiable meaning or indicatea change in meaning
when added to a word. ( roots and all derivational affixes)
EXERCISE
PERSIAN WORDS consists of more than one morphemes( xar means buy, -id→ past
tense)
a. xaridam
I bought
b. xaridi
you (sg) bought
c. xarid
he bought
d..naxaridam
I did not buy
e namixaridand they were not buying
f naxaridim
we did not buy
g mixarid
he was buying
FIND THE PRONOUN :
I you (sg)(pl) we
they
not.
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KULIAH 4
INFLECTIONAL MORPHEMES
It occurs in
1
-s → subject is singular noun/pronoun he,she it
verb → -s
(1) This pianist performs in the local hall every week.
The words (1) perform has an –s suffix. It tells us that thensentence (1) is
acceptable sentence because it follows the grammatical rule of English concerning
agreement between a verb and its subject. The suffix –s on the verb is obligatory when
the subject is a singular noun phrase. The –s on the verb does not make any independent
contribution to the meaning of the sentence.
2.- ed → past tense
(2) The pianist performed in the local hall yesterday,
The verb perform- is added with the suffix –ed, it tells us that the verb is written
in the past tense which is desribed that the event happens in the past. The –ed on the verb
does not make any independent contribution to the meaning of the sentence.
3. -ing → progressive
(3) The pianist is performing his ability in the hall now.
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The verb perform –is added with the suffix –ing. It tells us that the sentence is
written in the progressive sentence. The –ing on the verb does not make any independent
contribution to the meaning.
4 –en → past participle
(4) She has eaten all the biscuits.
The verb eat is added with the suffi –en. It tells us that the sentence is in the
present perfect tense have/has – past participle. The – en on the verb does not make any
independent contribution to the meaning.
5. –s → plural marker
(5) There were four rows of seats.
For the words that are having the irregular chnges in the plural form, as : man –men
child-children, tooth-teeth
→
called internal changes
6. – s → possesive
(6) The man’s bicycle is blue.
The noun man is added with the suffix ‘s, it shows that the noun is in the
possesive case.
7. –er → comparative adjective or adverb
(7) Bill is taller than Tom.
Tom walks faster than Bill.
The adjective/ adverb are added with the comparative form –er.
8 –est → superlative
(8) Valery is the fastest runner in this competition.
The adjective fast is added with the superlative form –est.
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EXERCISES:
1.In each of the following groups of words forms, identify of those that forms of the same
lexeme :
a.woman,women’s, women, womanly
b.greenish,greener,green,greens.
c.written,wrote, writer, rewrite, writing
2. What word form represents each of the following grammatical words?
a. the plural of the noun noose
b the plural of the noun goose
c the plural of the noun moose
d. the past tense of the verb play
e. the past tense of the verb lay
d the past tense of the verb lie (rest horizontally
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KULIAH 5
DERIVATIONAL MOPHEMES (1)
Look at these sentences:
1. The performance last week was particularly impressive.
2.
The performances were great.
We notice that there is a plural form of the word performance → performances.
The word performance here is not the variant of the word perform. :
Perform
→ verb
Performance (s) → noun.
The plural form of the word performance, performances is the same as the word cat, cats
→ the two form of the lexeme cat, singular and plural.
It makes sense to regard the word performance and performances as the two forms of the
a lexeme performance. So the relationship between the word perform and performance is
not between words form but between lexeme. The relationship between lexemes is called
DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY.
●Adverbs derived from adjectives
There are two kinds of derivational process :
adjective
1. + ly → deep
lazy
adverb
deeply
lazily
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2 + Ǿ→
conversion (zero derived) = a lexeme belongs to one class can be converted
to another class without any overt shape in shape
The car is fast.
The car is driven fast Ǿ
The work is hard.
They work hard Ǿ
● Nouns derived from nouns
English has derivational processes that yield nouns with meaning :
a.Small X
→ -let, -ette,-ie eg : booklet
b.Female X
→ -ss, -ine, eg : princess
c.Inhabitant of X
→ - er, -(i) an, eg : Londoners
d.State of being an X
→ -ship, -hood, eg : motherhood
e.Devotee of expert on X → -ist, -ian eg. : historian
GIVE SEVERAL OTHER EXAMPLES : ………….
Many of them have UNPREDICTABLES meaning, a cigarette is not merely a small
cigar, brotherhood means not ‘a state of being a brother’ but rather ‘secret or semi-secret
society.
● Nouns derives from adjectives
Al these three suffixes mean basically ‘property of being X’, where x is base adjectives.
adjective
noun
→
pure
purity
b. – ness →
good
goodness
c. - ism →
radical
radicalism
a. – ity
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But : high (adj.) ≠
highness (noun) = royal personage eg : Her Royal Highness
height
= property of being high
● Nouns derived from verbs
Noun → abstract noun means activity or result of X-ing.
verb
noun
a. - ance, -ence eg
ignore
ignorance
b. - ment,
develop
development
c. - ing
paint
painting
d. –((a)t) ion
organize
organizing
e -al
refuse
refusal
d. –er
sing
singer
The suffix –er is the one most generally used for forming nouns denoting a person
performing the action of corresponding verb.
e. coversion
- change the position of the stress
permìt
pĕrmit
tranfĕr
trǎnsfer
- change in the final consonant
believe
belief
prove
proof
defend
defence
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- change in vowel
sing
song
Sit
seat
EXERCISE :
1. What nouns can be formed from these words by suffixan.
define
defer
detain
refine
refer
retain
confine
confer
contain
2. The following words can be either nouns or verbs.
Record
outline
report
Journey
convict
outrage
exchange
imprint
answer
remark
record
import
surprise
retreat
cripple
a) for each of the word, determine whether stress placement can be used to make
the distinction between noun and verb.
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KULIAH 6
DERIVATIONAL MORPHEMES
● Adjectives derived from adjectives
Preffixes :
un - means
not
in - means
not
the allomorph
adjective
adjective
sure
unsure
correct
incorrect
possible
impossible
legal
illegal
responsible
irresponsible
green
greenish
small
smallish
im- , il-, ir-
Suffixes :
- ish means ‘some what X’
● Adjectives derived from verbs
verb
adjective
- able, ible means able to be Xed
break
breakable
- ent, -ant
tending to X
repell
repellent
- ive
tending to X
speculate
speculative
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The forms of ‘inflection morphemes’ –ed, -en, and –ing are considered as adjectives
derived from verbs : a not very interesting book
The party-goers sounded very drunk
The car seemed more damaged than the lamp-post
(notice that very cannot modify verbs)
● Adjectives derived from nouns
Noun
adjective
- full
meaning
meaningful
- less
meaning
meaningless
- al
origin
original
- ish
boy
boyish
verb
verb
Re- means reversive
ente
re-enter
Un-
negative
tie
untie
De-
negative
compose
decompose
Dis-
negative
believe
disbelieve
● Verbs derived from verbs.
Prefixes
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● Verbs derived from nouns
Noun
verb
bug
debug
Forest
deforest
Prefixes
De- means remove X from
Sufixes
-ise
terror
terrorise
-(i)fy
beauty
beautify
By replacing the final voiceless consonant of a noun with a voiced one
Bath
bathe
Breath
breathe
EXERCISE
1.What verb can be form from these adjectives
Full
poor
long
active
humble
Empty rich
short
national national
2–ism was discussed only as a suffix for deriving nouns from adjectives. Give examples
which to show that it can be used to derive nouns from nouns and from other adjectives.
3. –ly is a suffix for deriving adverbs from adjectives. Give exmples to show that it can
be used to derived adjective from nouns.
4.Consider the following words :
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untie
desks
triumphed
invalid
ageless fastest
preplan (V)
optionality
prettier
invalid (A)
Draw a tree structure for each word
5. Tom is a good football player.
Tom is taller than John.
Tom is a New Yorker
Explain the affix –er in these threes words, isolate them
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KULIAH 7
ENGLISH WORD FORMATION PROCESS
A.THE DIFFERENT WAYS TO PUT MORPHEMES TOGETHER AND FORM NEW
WORDS :
1.Compunding
2 Conversion
3. Affixation
4. Reduplication
5. Morpheme internal changes
6.Suppletion
B.WITHOUT PUTTING ANY MORPHEMES
1. Acronyms
2. Back Formation
3. Blending
4. clipping
5. coinage
1.COMPOUNDING
is a word formed by the combination of two independent words. The parts of a
compound can be free morphemes, derived words, or other compound in nearly any
combination
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PHRASE
COMPOUND
Green
house that green
gree
a glass structure when delicate plan
are rearranged
board that is black
board for writing
Silkworm
worm made of silk (toy)
net made of hair
caterpillar that spin silk
net for covering hair
Apart from stress, for distinguishing compound from phrases is a semantic: a compound
has a meaning that is unpredictable.
a. compound verbs
◦ V-V → stir-fry, freeze-dry
◦ N-V
hand-wash, air-condition, stem-clean
◦ A-V
dry-clean, whitewash
◦ P- V
underestimate, outrun, overcook
(V verb, N noun, A adjective, P preposition
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All this compounds have a verb as the rightmost element → right headed.
b. compound adjective
◦ N-A → sky-high, coal-black, oil-rich
◦ A-A
grey-green, squeaky-clean, red-hot
◦ P-A
underfull, overactive
The preposition over as its first element is the most productive morpheme
The meaning of over … is ‘too X.’ → right headed
c. compound nouns
◦ V-N → swearword, drophammer, playtime
◦ N-N
hairnet. Mosquito net, butterfly net
◦ A-N
blackboard, greenstone, faintheart
◦ P-N
in-group, outpost,overcoat
HEADLESS COMPOUND
e.g : pickpocket, killjoy
Pickpocket is not a kind of pocket.
The word-class of these headless compounds is not determined by any element inside
them. It is called EXOCENTRIC →
having a centre outside themselves.
Headed compounds → having an internal centre is called ENDOCENTIC
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UNIT 8
WORD FORMATION PROCESS (2)
THE TREE DIAGRAM OF THE COMPONDS
NOUN COMPOUNDS
N
N
N
N
Fire
engine
N
N
green
house
N
N
N
N
base
N
ball
N
bat
N
rack
PLURALIZATION IN ENGLISH COMPOUNDS
ENDOCENTRIC
Oak leaves
Wisdom teeth
Club feet
Policemen
EXOCENTRIC
Maple leafs (a hockey club )
Sabretooths ( species of tiger)
Bigfoots ( species of tiger)
Walkmans
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EXERCISE
1.Determine whether the compounds endocentric or exocentric
a. hairdryer b.bigmouth c.skinhead
d. armchair e.bath towel f pickpocket
2. Draw a tree diagram for the compound words
a. football
g.tree-trunk
b. yardstick
c.,sunbather
d. in-crowd
e.fastfood
f.sofware
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UNIT 9
WORD FORMATION (3)
AFFIXATION
An affix is a morpheme which only occurs when attached to some other
morpheme or morphemes such as root or stem or base.
3 types of affixes : prefixes
suffixes
infixes
derivational affixes
2 kinds of affixes
Inflectional affixes
In English it is common to distinguish between two sets of derivational affixes.
Class 1 affixes
Most of which are LatinateTrigger changes : in the vowel or consonant segments of the base
Affect the assignment of stress
Affix
-ity
Sample
San-ity,
Public-ity
-y
Democrac- y
-ive
-(i)al
Product-ive
Part-ial
-ize
Public-ize
-ious
Audac-ious
-ion
Nat-ion
Change trigger by affix
Vowel in the base from /ei/ to /әe/ (sane)
Final consonant of the base changes
from /k/ to /s/
Final consonant of the base changes from
/t/ to /s/
Stress shifts to 2nd syllable
Final consonant of the base changes from
/t/ to /ζ/
Final consonant of the base change from /k/
to /s/
Final consonant of the base change from /s/
to /ζ/ (audacity)
Final consonant of the base change from /t/
to /ζ/
30
Some class 2 affixes
Affix
-ness
-less
-ful
-ly
-er
-ish
-able
Sample word
Prompt-ness
Hair-less
Hope-ful
Quiet-ly
Defend-er
Self-ish
Commend-able
The various possibility are :
Domest-ic-ity
spac-ious-ness
Root
1 1
root 1
2
Change trigger by affix
None
None
None
None
None
None
None
fear-less-ness
root 2 2
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UNIT 10
WORD FORMATION PROCESS (4)
CONVERSION (ZERO DERIVATION)
Conversion is a process that assigns an already existing word to a new syntactic
category. Even though it does not add an affix, conversion resembles derivation because
of the change in the category and meaning that it brings about.
Eg. He buys a comb. ( a comb → a noun)
He combs his hair (comb → a verb)
REDUPLICATION
The morphological process that exists in several languages (but not English).
Reduplication is repeating the entire word (full reduplicariction) or partial reduplication.
e.g. It’s a big…big ..dog.
MORPHEME INTERNAL CHANGES
Although the usual pattern of plural formation is to add an inflectional morpheme,
some English words make an internal modification
Sing-plural → man –men tooth-teeth
foot- feet
geese-goose
past/past participle formation → break-broke-broken
sing-sang-sung
word class → live (V) – life (N)
breath - breathe
SUPPLETION
A morphological process where a root morpheme is replacing by phonologically
unrelated form. d
e. g : go – went – gne
is-are-been
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EXERCISE :
1.Each of the following columns illustrates a different morphological process.
a.A what morphological process is at work in column A, B, C?
b.Describe in your own words the difference between the process in column A and B.
A
B
C
Mouse/mice
go/went
rd cord/reco re
Ride/rode
is/was
rt mport/impo i
Take/took
good/better
nt(o)
mprint/impri i
2.Analysis the following compounds :
Week-end, hairdresser, kind-hearted. (k)
3 What verbs can be formed by prefixation, suffixation, or conversion.
Full empty poor rich long short active national humble proud
4.-full was discussed only as a suffix for deriving nouns from adjective.
Give examples to show that it can also be used to derive nouns from other nouns
5.- ism was discussed only as suffixes deriving nouns from adjectives.
Give examples to show that it can also be used to derived nouns from other nouns.
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UNIT 11
WORD FORMATION PROCESS (5)
ACRONYMS
Formed by taking the initial sounds (letters) of the words of a phrase and uniting them
into a combination which is itself pronounceable as a separate word.
e.g :
NATO →.North Atlantic Treaty
BACK FORMATION
Back formation makes use of a process called analogy to derive new words, but in a
rather backward manner (creates a new word by removing a real or supposed affix from
another word in the language.)
Eg. Television → televise (v)
Donation → donate (v)
BLENDING
Are words that are created from non-morphemic parts of two already existing items.
e.g : smog → smoke and fog
brunch → breakfast and lunch
CLIPPING
is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables.
e.g : prof - professor
burger – hamburger
COINAGE
Words is created without using any of the methods.
e.g.: KODAK HONDA
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CLITIC
Some words are unable to stand alone as independent forms for phonological reasons,
called clitics.
Clitic must be attached to another word in the sentence
e.g I’m leaving
↓
clitic
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