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William Peter West; Literature Review for Marine Non-Native and Non Established Species
Literature Review for Marine Non-Native and Non Established Species
William Peter West
Falmouth Marine School & University of Plymouth
The introduction of non-established species around the globe is rapidly increasing (Carlton &
Geller, 1993; Cohen & Carlton, 1998). It is thought to be the leading cause in the problems of
global biodiversity (Wilcove et al., 1998).
There is dispute over the correct and most suitable definition of an introduced species and the
correct name for these species. Invasive, alien, non-native are all names used and are often
used incorrectly. According to Boudouresque & Verlaque (2002) for a species to be defined
as a non-native species, it must fulfil the following four criteria; 1). The species has colonies
in a new area where it has not previously existed. 2). Its distribution is linked to humans
either directly or indirectly. 3). There is a geographical difference between its native area and
new area. 4). New generations of the non-native species develop without the assistance of
humans in their new area. Carlton (1987) has defined introduced species as ‘those taxa
transported by human activity to regions where they did not exist in historical times’ (with
historical times meaning 5000 years). This definition is the most relevant in the context of
marine species. The definition can then be divided up in to non-native species and nonestablished introductions (Eno et al., 1997). To be a non-native species, that species would
have to be directly or indirectly introduced to an area where it has not existed before in the
last 5000 years. This area would have to be out of the range of any natural migration. Finally
the species would have to be self populating in that area and be well established. A nonestablished species would be a species that has been introduced to an area but is incapable of
self population sufficiently to gain a well established population. Non-established species
over time can develop to become a non-native species once a large enough population has
been succeeded. Alien and invasive species are also common names used to describe nonestablished species (Eno et al., 1997).
Humans have travelled by ships all around the world whether it is for pleasure, cargo or oil
and marine species have travelled with them. Fouling on ships’ hulls and ballast water are
large contributors to the distribution of marine organisms around the globe. Fouling
especially has been a contributor to the marine ‘invasive’ problem since the 1700’s. It is
thought that a wooden sailing ship in 1750 would have had 120 marine organisms fouling its
hull. Fouling organisms would have been cleaned off at different ports on the ship’s voyage
and thus settled in that port’s habitat, becoming a marine non-native species (Bax et al.,
2003). Currently there are thought to be 10,000 different species travelling around the globe
in the ballast tanks of ships (Drake & Lodge, 2003). During the discharge of ballast water in
ports around the globe, non-native species are introduced to that port’s habitat. In many cases
species carried in ballast tanks will die due to the dark and contaminated conditions of the
tanks. In other cases species that survive in that ballast tank and its journey will fail to
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William Peter West; Literature Review for Marine Non-Native and Non Established Species
establish in their new environment due to unsuitable conditions and the competition from
native species. However, some habitats offer the perfect environment for the introduced
species, with that species therefore populating the port and surrounding areas (Bax et al.,
2003). Aquaculture practices are other anthropogenic contributors to the distribution of nonnative species and these are ever increasing contributors, with the pressure on aquaculture as
a food source (Homans & Smith, 2011; Gollasch, 2002). Much work has been done to
manage and control introductions, but this has mainly been concentrated on the key vectors,
such as ballast water and aquaculture. There is little management in place for the introduction
of species via hull fouling of recreational boats. It is reported as arguably the biggest
unregulated factor contributing to the spread of non-native species (Murray et al., 2011; Piola
et al., 2009).
The success of the introduced species is partly dependent on the suitability of the abiotic
factors of that environment for that species, such as salinity and temperature. As well as the
abiotic factors, the dynamics, composition and species richness of the native species
community play an important role in deciding the success of the invading species. Some
studies show that areas with larger more complex communities of native species are prone to
fewer invasions (Law & Morton, 1996; Stachowicz et al., 2002). However, there is reason to
believe that the number of non-native species has a positive correlation with the number of
native species (Lonsdale, 1999). Both of these arguments could be overridden by studies that
conclude that salinity is the key variable in the success of non-native species. The Remane
curve suggests that euryhaline species succeed in ports and ballast water (Paavola et al.,
2005; Wolff, 1999). Although very hard to predict the success of introduced species to an
area, it can be said that with statistical consistencies a better understanding of the variables
that lead to successful introductions can be obtained (Williamson & Fitter, 1996).
To remove and eradicate an invasive or non-native species can have secondary consequences
on that habitat (Zavaleta et al., 2001) even when the eradication of the species has been
successful. Without sufficient planning habitats can become prone to further re-invasion by
species. Native species may fail to return to an area because of the changes that the invasive
species has had on that habitat. This has been the case with the invasive plant species
Mysembryanthemum crystallium that produces high saline soil making it difficult for saline
sensitive plants to return to the altered habitat (El-Ghareeb, 1991).
With the increase in development in harbours and ports, the natural intertidal substrates such
as rocky reefs are being replaced by man-made structures such as pilings and pontoons. The
natural intertidal substrates offer a primary habitat for a wide variety of marine species. The
man-made structures also offer habitats for both floral and faunal species, both non-native
and native species. These structures offer the chance for non-natives to spread and populate
the natural substrates (Connell, 2001). Throughout the Fal harbour, port development is
prominent with the commercial docks to the south west of the natural harbour. Some harbour
areas such as Mylor, St. Mawes and the areas between Greenbank Quay and Custom House
Quay are developed for pleasure craft. Falmouth harbour therefore offers both natural and
man-made habitats for marine species. The following non-native species have been reported
in the Falmouth harbour (Arenas et al., 2006; Tompsett et al., 1992): Styela clava, Molgula
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William Peter West; Literature Review for Marine Non-Native and Non Established Species
socialis, Tricellaria inopinata, Bulgula neritina, Crepidula fornicata, Elminius modestus,
Neosiphonia harveyi and Codium fragile spp. Tomentosoides. Plymouth has reported nonnative and invasive species. For example several colonies of the ascidian Perophora japonica
have occurred in the Plymouth Sound during 1999. This was the first record of this species
being found in British waters, with it being native to Japan and Korea (Nishikawa et al.,
2000). Examples like this case, could lead to that species potentially spreading to the Fal
estuary by anthropogenic means (Manchester & Bullock, 2000).
Non-native species introductions to an area can cause problems to the native biodiversity. In
many cases native extinctions have been a consequence as a result of predation, competition
and disease (Fritts & Rodda, 1998; Wilcove et al., 1998). This is more common with animal
invasions (Mack et al., 2000). The studies made in the Mediterranean Sea (Galil, 2007;
Boudouresque, 2004) however, suggest that this generalisation does not happen in all cases.
The effects that non-natives have on a habitat are dependent upon what type of species the
non-native is. Non-native species introductions have the potential to reduce the population
size of natives as well as causing a reduction in genetic diversity, a loss in species function,
processes and the structure of native habitats (Galil, 2007; Ruiz et al., 1997). The
introduction of invasive species to an area can cause economic and health problems to human
populations. This was demonstrated in 1991 in South America where there was a large
outbreak of cholera Virbrio cholera O1. This outbreak caused 11,959 deaths between 1991
and 1997. The source of the outbreak was from ballast water discharge leading to sea food
contamination (Kumate et al., 1998). Invasive species have the capability of damaging
infrastructure. Man made, submerged infrastructure damage leads to economic problems,
with money required for increased maintenance of infrastructure such as pilings and
pontoons. In New Zealand this was the case with the invasion of the ascidian Didemnum
vexillum. Polyethylene wrapping was used on pilings to eradicate the D. vexillum and prevent
the ascidian spreading to a mussel farm (Coutts & Forrest, 2007). The invasion of the
gastropod Crepidula fornicata in Britain has affected oyster fisheries. Introduced to Britain in
the late 19th century, C. fornicata has had damaging effects on the culture of oysters. They
thrive in the same conditions as oysters and have a suspension feeding regime that causes
problems to the native oyster (Montaudouin et al., 1999). Oyster fisheries have also been
affected by the invasion of the American oyster drill Urosalpinx cinerea (Gibbs et al., 1991).
U. cinerea was first recorded in British waters in the early 1900’s. It occurred in the oyster
beds of the Black water in Essex causing problems to the native oyster and thus having
detrimental effects on the fisheries economy by predating on the oysters. It is thought that U.
cinerea came over with the American atlantic oyster (Hancock, 1954). U. cinerea numbers
have depleted with the introduction of tri-butyl tin (Matthiessen & Gibbs, 1998).
There have been a number of surveys completed to investigate non-native and invasive
species. Throughout these surveys the methodology used varies. The methodology is largely
dependent on the size and scale of the survey. A typical methodology is observation and
identification from a group of people. This is demonstrated in ‘Rapid Assessment Survey of
English Marinas’ (Arenas et al., 2006). A group of 11 to 14 people observe for 2 hours the
organisms on select pontoons whilst recording all invasive and non-native species found.
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William Peter West; Literature Review for Marine Non-Native and Non Established Species
Although this methodology is fair and effective, it is limited to surveying a small area as well
as requiring high levels of man power. Panels have been used as a method to assess
biodiversity of an area. This method has been used in Sydney harbour, Australia. Concrete
panels were attached to both artificial and natural reefs for an 8 month period to compare the
species type and amount of settlement on the different reef structures (Connel, 2001). This
method is again effective but limits the size of area covered, with only a small sample of an
area surveyed. In 1992 there was a survey of Fal completed for the National Rivers
Authority. This survey used a methodology that surveyed all areas of the Fal. Transects with
quadrats were used to assess the biodiversity around the Fal during the Wheal Jane Mining
incident (Tompsett et al, 1992). This methodology is suitable as it enables many sites to be
surveyed using a fair, consistent technique. Areas surveyed can be surveyed again with the
use of bearings and photographs.
In a time when non-natives and non-established introductions are causing many problems to
global biodiversity, research is essential to grasp a better understanding as to how to control
and manage the problem (Pimental et al, 2005). It is clear that non-established species have
been introduced to the Fal estuary and as studies suggest, these species are becoming
established non-native species. The last major assessment of non-native species in the Fal
was conducted in 2006 and a major biodiversity assessment was conducted in 1992 (Arenas
et al., 2006; Tompsett et al., 1992). On going research is required in the Fal estuary to assess
whether new species have arrived and whether they are developing as communities. This
study should be set up with a view to continuous annual research so as to monitor the
biological pollutant and install management of the situation.
Final word count: 1,990
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