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INTRODUCTION TO INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION AND INTERCULTURAL RELATIONS Communication can be described as the transmission of information by means of systems of signs or symbols. The most important sign system in human communication is of course language. Language consists of forms - sounds, words, sentences etc. - with distinct meanings. These meaning are agreed among the people who share a particular language and culture, i.e. they are cultural products. As meanings are culture-dependent, and culture is in turn dependent on language for its dissemination, connections between linguistic structures, their meanings, and culture can be assumed. For example, it has been argued that dialectical thinking in Chinese culture - assumed to be more pronounced than in Western cultures - is reflected in particular forms and meanings of the Chinese vocabulary (Document 1 ). The fact that meanings are conventionalised does not mean that they are always clear or they are not subject to interpretation. This does not prevent successful communication as long as interpretations of meanings are shared among the users of a particular language. This can be ensured by convention or regulation, for example, "Political Correctness". These conventions may, however, apply differently in different cultures, even if they use the same language, as is illustrated in Document 2, describing how an expression used by an English person caused offence in the USA. When different languages are involved in intercultural communication, these difficulties are of course greatly amplified due to the fact that not all users of a particular language have the same level of competence in that language, and, in many cases, communication is dependent on translation. In translating from one language to another, it is usually very difficult if not impossible to find words or to create sentences or texts in another language which accurately express the meanings of the original. See Document 3 on the difficulties of translating from Japanese into English, Document 4 on translation mistakes from English into Italian in an official EU document, and Document 5 on the challenges of translating metaphors between Mandarin Chinese and English. Document 6 illustrates the pitfalls of translation through a number of mistranslated messages (from various Asian languages into English) on public signs. Additional communication difficulties may arise from the fact that some languages may have expressions for certain meanings or concepts which cannot be substituted, as the concepts they express may not even exist in other languages, or the related vocabulary of those languages may be less complex or varied in expressing those meanings. See, for example, Document 7 on the range of vocabulary available for the expression of emotion in Russian, for which there is no equivalent choice of words in English. Frequently, languages adopt words or expressions ("loan words") from other languages to enrich their own vocabulary or to replace existing words with expressions from other languages which may seem more useful or attractive. This may, however, not always be acceptable to all users of that language, as is illustrated in Document 8, which discusses problems arising from the incorporation of English words into the vocabulary of Mandarin Chinese. Transfers of words or expressions do not only take place between different languages, but also within the same language if used by different cultures. See Documents 9 and 10 on the adoption of American expressions in British English and vice versa, and associated debates about the acceptability of these changes. Sometimes the influence of one language on another can lead to language mixing or the creation of new expressions which are rooted in both languages, as illustrated in Document 11, which discusses the nature of "Hinglish", a variety of English used in India. -2Human communication usually involves other types of sign systems in addition to language, resulting in "multimedia" messages. These sign systems are, for example, various types of visual signs such as personal appearance, body language, still or moving images. See Document 12 for a discussion of politicians' body language, Document 13 on the communicative value of politicians' dress sense, and Document 14 on the message value of famous footballers' tattoos. In intercultural situations, the interpretation of visual signs will depend on attitudes and values prevalent in different cultures, and these differences may be a source of misunderstanding or conflict. An example of an image causing intercultural conflict is Document 15, describing how a British tourist was deported from Sri Lanka for wearing a Buddha tattoo. Document 16 describes how images of women were altered by Iranian state TV, and Document 17 reports images of animals being altered in the Malaysian media for religious reasons. Communication can also be understood as social interaction or social behaviour, i.e. what people "are doing" and aiming to achieve when they communicate. Document 18 explains how even an absence of action can be interpreted as constituting communication. In intercultural situations, behaviours will differ depending on cultural background, and certain behaviours which may be conventional and acceptable in one culture may be misunderstood or even cause offence in another. Documents 19 and 20 describe different attitudes to politeness and indirect communication in different cultures, and how these behaviours can lead to misunderstanding or conflict if not recognized as culture-specific. Document 21 describes cultural differences in the expression of personal opinions, which are very strongly expressed in some cultures but more cautiously in others, and Document 22 illustrates cultural differences in the expression of emotions. Document 23 illustrates cultural differences in humour comprehension, and Documents 24 and 25 describe how what is perceived as humorous in certain cultures can cause offence in others. They concern the publication of cartoons of the Prophet Mohammed in the Danish media which caused offence and outrage among parts of the global Muslim community. Document 26 shows how certain things said by men to women may be considered as sexual harassment in some cultures but not in others, and Document 27 illustrates how a particular way of addressing a person may be acceptable in one culture but considered a racist offence in another. Documents 28 and 29 describe cultural differences in business communication: Document 28 illustrates how people from different cultures present themselves differently at job interviews, and how this can cause misunderstandings, and Document 29 discusses how culture-specific behavioural conventions are reflected in different approaches to business negotiations. In order to understand communicative interactions, the contexts or circumstances have to be taken into account in which communication takes place. Such contexts include, for example, situational circumstances such as the people involved in events and their attitudes, intentions or expectations, relationships between them, or communication channels (e.g. email vs. face-to-face). In addition to situational contexts, communication depends on a range of background contexts, the most fundamental of which is of course culture. An important way in which culture informs communication is the extent to which contexts as such are taken into account, as is explained in Document 30, which discusses differences between so-called "High Context" and "Low Context" cultures. Examples of how specific background contexts, for example politics and legislation, affect intercultural communication are Documents 31 and 32, which concern internet censorship in China, and Document 33, which describes the Chinese government's reaction to call for more internet freedom by the US. The impact of the internet as a context of intercultural communication is discussed in Document 34, which raises the question whether the internet really is a liberating force in global communication. Document 35 describes differences between the legal systems of France and the UK in relation to news coverage of celebrity scandals. -3Communication as symbolic interaction is of course fundamental to human relations, but, at the same time, human relations depend on conditions and processes beyond communication. Whenever different cultural groups, for example nations, social, ethnic, or religious groups, interact, intercultural relations exist. Frequently, in order to reduce complexity in understanding cultural groups, and to create an - illusionary - sense of understanding, simplified characterisations of groups, or stereotypes, are created. Stereotypes may be figmental, i.e. they may arise from imaginary traits attributed to others, or they may be based on factual evidence, but extended by generalisation so as to create an unrealistic perception of that group. In addition to simplification, frequently, stereotypes serve to distinguish between groups in order to create an enhanced sense of group identity. Document 36 illustrates widely held stereotypes of some European nations, and Document 37 discusses a stereotypical representation of Asian people in a British sitcom. Documents 38 - 41 discuss autostereotypes (stereotypes which cultural groups hold about themselves): Document 38 represents an autostereotype of Scotland, which is discussed in detail in Document 39. Documents 40 and 41 represent autostereotypes of Britain as created by politicians and in the media. If stereotypes are combined with positive or negative attitudes and value judgements towards other groups, they constitute prejudice. Documents 42 and 43 discuss psychological processes and conditions which can lead to prejudice. Within any given society, the existence of different cultural groups is tied up with the question to what extent cultural diversity should be tolerated or to what extent cultural groups - usually minorities - should be required to adapt or assimilate into the majority culture. Toleration of cultural diversity, or multiculturalism, is a contentious political issue in many countries. See Document 44 on a speech by David Cameron which is critical of the concept of multiculturalism, Document 45 on reactions to the Prime Minister's views by ethnic minority organisations in the UK, and Document 46 on global reactions to the speech. Document 47 compares attitudes towards multiculturalism in the UK to those in Germany and various other European countries. Cultural diversity is an inevitable consequence of migration, which is an equally contentious political topic in many countries. See Document 48 concerning the rise of right-wing anti-immigration and racist parties across Europe, Document 49 for a discussion of critical attitudes towards immigration within the UK, Document 50 for Nigel Farage's arguments against immigration, and Document 51 for Tony Blair's warnings against xenophobic prejudice in the UK. Documents 52 and 53 discuss accusations of prejudice against the British police in dealing with with Black and Asian minorities. Documents 54, 55 and 56 discuss relations between the Muslim community in the UK and the British government: Document 54 describes the discussion around the so-called "Islamification" of certain schools in England, Document 55 argues that the Muslim community in the UK needs to do more to uphold British values, and, in Document 56, a Muslim teacher defends his view that schools should meet the cultural needs of the majority of its pupils. Documents 57, 58 and 59 discuss relationships between Muslims and non-Muslims and attitudes towards religious minorities across Europe. Document 60 describes the influence of Orthodox churches in various Eastern European countries in relation to nationalism and the treatment of ethnic, religious and LGBT minorities in those countries.