Download LEXICON: JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN TERMS

LEXICON: JEWISH AND CHRISTIAN TERMS
“SACRED TEXTS” AND “PRAYER AND WORSHIP”
RECLAIMING THE CENTER, VOLUMES 1 AND 2
Allegory: This is a literary device used to interpret a text in order to (1) go beyond its “apparent”
meaning, (2) point to something beyond itself and its literal meaning or context, or (3) “stand
for” something else. “Gregory of Nyssa wrote that, much as wheat is turned into bread, allegory
converts raw, unassimilable scripture into wholesome intellectual food (Hom. in Cant., prol.)”
(Encyclopedia of Early Christianity, 37).
Anti-Judaism: Anti-Judaism is the vilification of Jewish law, cult, worship, biblical
interpretation, rabbinic literature, etc. Social and political hostility on the part of Christians
toward Jews until the 19th century, sometimes inaccurately labeled “Christian antisemitism,”
could more properly be called “anti-Jewishness.”
Antisemitism: Antisemitism should be clearly differentiated from anti-Judaism. Antisemitism
refers to attitudes and practices that incorporate into anti-Jewishness the pernicious element of
racism.
B.C.E. and C.E.: These are abbreviations scholars use in place of B.C. and A.D.
B.C.E. stands for “Before the Common Era” and C.E. for the “Common Era.”
Birthright: Israel, along with other cultures of the ancient Near East, gave special honor and
privilege to the oldest son of each family. Surprisingly, a birthright could be sold or transferred
from one sibling to another.
Blessing of the eldest son: A blessing from a dying father to his eldest son was offered as a
means of transferring the position of power, order, and authority within a family. When the
blessing was given, leadership and continuity from one generation to the next were established
and preserved beyond the father’s death. In Genesis, the birthright and blessing are intended as
“two gifts” to be bestowed upon the oldest son by his father, the patriarch of the family.
C.E.: See B.C.E. above.
Chain of Tradition: This is the process by which the wisdom of a particular rabbi (as well as of
his school and students) is passed down through the ages in the study of his teachings as
recorded in Jewish sacred texts. A “chain” is constructed by linking these teachings together as
they are passed from one generation to the next.
Eucharist: This word comes from the Greek eucharistia, which means “thanksgiving.”
Eucharist is an early name given to the meal shared by Christians to emphasize that it is the meal
at which we give thanks for all God’s goodness, particularly in the life, death, and resurrection of
Jesus the Christ. Eucharist is the term most widely used in ecumenical Christian circles. The
Eucharist is also called “Holy Communion” and the “Lord’s Supper.”
The Gospels: The word “gospel” in Greek literally means “good news.” Therefore, the Gospels
tell the good news of the life, ministry, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ. There are a
number of such gospels, but only four—the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John—are
canonical (authoritative). In “Reclaiming the Center” materials, “Gospel” is capitalized when it
is used in reference to the four canonical Gospels. “Gospel” is not capitalized when it refers to
the “good news”—the message the Gospels convey.
The Holy and the Sacred: In his pioneering book The Elementary Forms of Religious Life
(1912), the French sociologist and secular Jew Emile Durkheim maintains that the religious
imagination divides the world into two domains, the sacred and the profane. This contrast is not
equivalent to “good” and “bad.” The domain of the sacred designates any object or person who
has been separated from the mundane or ordinary world (“the profane”). An encounter with the
sacred generates powerful feelings that point to a realm beyond our immediate grasp and outside
of our personal understanding. The Latin roots of this word are illuminating: Sanctum means “set
apart,” and sacer refers to “the priest” who handles sacred objects.
In his classic work The Idea of the Holy (1917), Rudolf Otto, a German Lutheran scholar of
comparative religions, provides a detailed analysis of experiences in which people encounter the
ineffable or the numinous. The experience of the holy makes us acutely aware of our radical
dependency on a reality beyond our control and comprehension, external and greater than
ourselves. Otto examines the quality of this experience by noting that the holy simultaneously
pushes and pulls us in two directions. On the one hand, the holy overpowers us. We stand in awe
and are overwhelmed by a primal fear. On the other hand, the holy has an irresistible power of
attraction. The Holy beckons and fascinates and enraptures.
In the Tanakh and the Old Testament, “the holy” points to an ideal state of perfection that is
realized in its fullness by God alone. To approach this realm of the holy requires purification,
and both Judaism and Christianity articulate religious paths that expand the realm of the holy and
aim to sanctify life in all its rich variety.
In the Jewish tradition, “holy” (kadosh) points also in the direction of separation and distinction.
The category depends upon the delineation of boundaries, such as “forbidden and permitted,”
“impure and pure,” and “ordinary and holy,” as a way of approaching God and establishing a
relationship with God through the offering of sacrifices, the eating or refraining from eating
certain foods, or the celebrating of a variety of holy days described in the Tanakh. Additionally,
one is commanded by God to be holy—“for I, the LORD your God, am holy” (Lv 19:2). In
doing so, a Jew (and a people) is expected to act in the ways of God as he or she walks through
life, remembering and living out this ideal—feeding the hungry, protecting the orphan and
widow, and clothing the naked—“for you were strangers in the land of Egypt” (Lv 19:34).
In the Christian tradition, “holiness” both derives from God and refers to God’s very being.
Then, and only in a derivative way, does it refer to all who live in accordance with what God
requires: Be holy as I am holy (see Lv 19:2). Echoing the ethos of Judaism, the Christian
“participates” in God’s holiness by loving God and neighbor. In regard to material things,
“holiness” indicates that an object has been dedicated or consecrated to God’s service.
What does the dictionary say about “sacred” and “holy”?
Sacred: connected with God (or the gods) or dedicated to a religious purpose and so deserving
veneration; religious rather than secular (sacred music); (of writing or text) embodying the laws
or doctrines of a religion; regarded with great respect and reverence by a particular religion,
group, or individual; sacrosanct. Origin: late Middle English: past participle of archaic sacre,
“consecrate”; from Old French sacrer; from Latin sacrare, from sacer, sacr, “holy.”
Holy: dedicated or consecrated to God or a religious purpose (the Holy Bible, the holy month of
Ramadan); (of a person) devoted to the service of God (holy person); morally and spiritually
excellent (to live a holy life). Origin: Old English hālig; of Germanic origin, related to Dutch and
German heilig.
(Source: The Oxford Dictionary)
Holy Communion: See “Eucharist.”
Kingdom of God and Kingdom of Heaven: These terms are synonymous. Although the
Hebrew Bible or Old Testament does not use the phrase, it clearly identifies God as King (Jgs
8:23, Is. 43:15). God’s sovereignty reigns over both Israel and the nations. In the New
Testament, the phrase “Kingdom of God” is used in all four Gospels, the Acts of the Apostles,
and the letters of Paul. “Kingdom of Heaven” appears only in the Gospel of Matthew. Jesus
preaches the imminent arrival of the Kingdom of God. By using this term, he implicitly criticizes
the oppressive Roman Empire. However, he has in mind not simply a mundane political change
but the dawning of an entirely new world order. Until then Jesus’ followers are expected to
prepare for this transformation and are commanded to repent and live a life infused with justice
and intense piety. In time the God of Israel will break into human history to right all that is
wrong and unjust. There will be divine judgment followed by reward and punishment, ultimately
leading to a radical reversal of human affairs. Sometimes Jesus simply preaches about the
imminence of the Kingdom; other times he voices the expectation that he will have a central role
in the eschatological drama.
Liturgy: From the Greek laos, meaning “people,” and ergon, meaning “work” (i.e., “the work of
the people”), liturgy refers generally to the formal structure of public worship.
Lord’s Supper: Another early name for the sharing of bread and cup, this name emphasizes that
it is the table at which the “Lord,” Christ, is the host. This is the term preferred by many
Protestant churches.
Mahloket: This Hebrew word refers to a conflict, debate, or disagreement. Mahloket is
a concept found throughout rabbinic sacred literature. It is generally encountered in an argument
over a fine distinction, as when one rabbi says “x” while another says “y” in answer to an issue
of Jewish law (where either answer would be acceptable within the entire spectrum of Jewish
law).
Mass: This term comes from the Latin missa and is part of the phrase Ite, missa est, the dismissal
at the end of the worship service. In early centuries, there were often two different dismissals—
one before the sharing of the Eucharist for those who were learning about the Christian faith and
were not yet baptized (catechumens), and one at the end of the entire service for those who had
become full members of the Christian community. Eventually, the name for the one liturgical
element became the name for the whole liturgy. Mass is the term preferred by Roman Catholic
Christians as well as some Anglicans.
Matzah: Matzah is the Hebrew word for “unleavened bread.” It is a flat bread made of flour and
water and is eaten during the Passover seder (see Seder below). In Dt 16:3, matzah is called “the
bread of affliction,” that is, bread that is eaten by the poor and by slaves. Matzah is a reminder
both of the Israelites’ slavery in Egypt and of their hurried exodus from that land, when they did
not have time to wait for their bread to rise.
Midrash (adj., midrashic): Midrash, meaning “interpretation, explanation, and discussion,”
refers to interpretation of scripture and of Jewish law derived through exegesis—the term for the
process of biblical interpretation. Midrash Halakhah consists of legal expositions on the Torah.
Midrash Agadah includes expositions of and homilies on non-legal portions of the Torah and
incorporates theology, ethics, and philosophy. This literary genre began in the rabbinic period
and developed over time as a process of continuous commentary; it is still being written today.
Midrash is also the term associated with specific collections of rabbinic literature (i.e., Midrash
Rabbah).
Mishnah (adj., Mishnaic): The Mishnah or Mishna, which means “teaching,” was compiled and
redacted around 200 C.E. by Rabbi Yehudah HaNasi (Judah the Prince). This six-volume law
code comprises the foundation for all of Jewish living and religious practice.
Mitzvah (plural: mitzvot): This is the Hebrew word for a religious obligation, a commandment.
The mitzvot create a pattern for ethical living.
New Testament: The second part of the Christian Bible, the New Testament comprises the
canonical Gospels and Epistles (Letters), as well as The Acts of the Apostles and The Revelation
to John.
Old Testament: The first part of the Christian Bible, the Old Testament contains the books of
the Jewish canon of scripture, though ordered differently. In Roman Catholic Bibles, the Old
Testament also contains the Deuterocanonical books, as Catholics consider them to be canonical
(authoritative). The Deuterocanonical books are also included in some Protestant Bibles, but not
all Protestants consider them to be canonical.
Many people, both Jews and Christians, consider “Old Testament” to be a pejorative term. In this
regard, it may be helpful to keep two things firmly in mind. First, in the ancient world what was
“old” was trustworthy, while what was “new” was suspect. More significantly, the Old
Testament is neither the Tanakh of the Jewish people nor the Hebrew Bible of the scholarly
community, despite the fact that all three are essentially the same text. It was the disciples’
overwhelming need to understand the crucifixion of Jesus of Nazareth as “the King of the Jews”
that impelled them to read their scriptures in a new way. Their reading ultimately transformed
the scriptures of Israel into the scriptures of the Church, and it is this reading that distinguishes
the Old Testament from the Tanakh. The transformational process is illustrated in narrative form
in the Emmaus story (Lk 24:13-35), in which the risen Christ interprets “the things about himself
in all the scriptures.” The move attributed to Christ in the narrative describes what the disciples
themselves did: They searched Israel’s scriptures and in them found the context, imagery, and
language to turn the disaster of the crucifixion into the good news of Jesus Christ. And in so
doing, they created the church’s Old Testament.
Oral Torah: In traditional Jewish thought, God revealed instructions for living a Jewish life
both through the “written” Torah and through a parallel process of orally transmitted traditions
passed on from one generation to the next. These traditions are referred to as the “oral Torah.”
Following the destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem (70 C.E.), an attempt was made to
keep these oral laws from being lost to future generations by writing them down. Known as
“rabbinic literature,” they continue to be studied today, two thousand years later.
Parables: A parable is a type of narrative found in both Jewish and Christian literature that
conveys a complex and transformative theological message in the form of simple story. Parables
are frequently used by Jesus in the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke.
Pharisees: The name “Pharisees” derives from a Hebrew word meaning “Separatists,” but there
is no consensus among scholars on precisely what or who it was the Pharisees were separated
from: from the gentiles, from irreligious Jews who acted like Greeks, from sources of ritual
impurity, or from something else. Scholars do agree that the Pharisees of Jesus’ day were a
purity sect. Motivated by the injunction in the Torah to be “a kingdom of priests and a holy
nation” (Ex 19:6), the Pharisees aspired to separate the sacred from the profane. They wanted to
imbue the people of Israel with the spirit of holiness, to inspire all Jews to live in a state of moral
and ritual purity comparable to that of the priests who carried out sacrifices in the Temple. To
this end, ceremonies that were part of the Temple cult were carried into the home, most
especially in the practice of treating the table as if it were the holy altar and striving to fulfill all
the demands of that altar. The Pharisees also claimed the authority to interpret the law, which
they did in order to clarify it, to make it more applicable to the society of their day, and to
uncover its true meaning.
Polemics: This term refers to vehement rhetorical arguments or strategies by which one group
defines itself over and against its opponents or competitors.
Primary religious language: This is the language of religious experience, the “first” language
of faith, a type of language that tries to put into words experiences of transcendence, mystery,
awe, and of individual and communal transformation.
Rabbi: “Rabbi” is Hebrew for “my teacher” or “my master.” The title is conferred after
considerable study of traditional Jewish sources. This conferral and its responsibilities are central
to the chain of tradition in Judaism past and present.
Rabbinic Judaism: This is the term used to define the form of Judaism that emerged in the first
few centuries of the Common Era. Rabbinic Judaism differs from biblical Judaism.
Revelation: Revelation refers to an encounter with the divine that takes place in human history
and establishes the foundational memories for religious traditions. For Jews this foundational
memory is Exodus/Sinai; for Christians it is the life, death, and resurrection of Jesus Christ.
These function as the root experiences of biblical revelation for all generations to come. In the
telling and re-telling of these experiences, communities re-fashion a historical moment of the
past into an ongoing and ever-present moment, which in turn creates a set of behaviors and
responses by human beings and their communities as an acknowledgement of the gift of divine
encounter.
Reverend (abbreviated Rev.): Contrary to what many people assume, “Reverend” is not a title;
it is an adjective. The definite article must be used with the adjective: The Rev. John Smith.
Otherwise, this individual should be identified as Mr. Smith, Dr. Smith, or Fr. Smith. The Rev.
Joan Smith should be identified as Mrs. Smith, Ms. Smith, Miss Smith, or Dr. Smith.
Sacraments: The Book of Common Prayer, used in the Episcopal Church, defines the
sacraments as “outward and visible signs of inward and spiritual grace, given by Christ as sure
and certain means by which we receive that grace.” Augustine defined a sacrament as the
“visible form of invisible grace” or “a sign of a sacred thing.” See p. 127 for more specific
information about the seven sacraments of the Church.
The Sages: This term refers to the group of Jewish teachers and leaders who emerged after 200
C.E. as the arbiters and interpreters of the Bible. The sages established Jewish practice for the
postbiblical (and post-sacrificial) Judaism observed by Jews today.
Seder: Seder is the Hebrew word for “order.” The seder is the ritual meal eaten by Jews on the
first night (or the first two nights) of Passover (Pesach). As the meal is eaten, the story of the
exodus from Egypt is retold from a text called a Haggadah. There are many versions of the
Haggadah (plural: Haggadot).
The Shoah: Shoah is a Hebrew word meaning “destruction” or “catastrophe.” The word
“Holocaust,” which is derived from the word used in the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the
Hebrew Bible) for “burnt offering,” carries religious overtones. The massacre of millions of Jews
and other marginalized groups such as the Romani (gypsies), people with disabilities, and gay
and lesbian people during Hitler’s tyranny was diabolical and irreligious. Thus, Shoah is the
preferred term for many Jews. [This superb explanation of the Shoah was provided by Dr. Brad
R. Braxton.]
Shul: Shul is the Yiddish word for “school.” This is the common name for a synagogue, first
applied to the beit ha-midrash, which was used for both prayer and study.
Supersessionism: The word “supersessionism”—also known as replacement or displacement
theology—comes from the Latin super (“on, upon, or above”) and sedere (“to sit”), as when one
person sits on another person’s chair, thereby displacing the other person. Christian
supersessionism makes the claim that, following the resurrection of Jesus Christ, Christians
replaced Jews in God’s love and favor and in the divine plan of salvation.
According to the supersessionist view, God repudiated the Jewish people for their rejection of
Christ. As a result, God’s covenantal relationship with Israel was abrogated, to be taken up by
the Church; and the Mosaic Law (Torah) was annulled, to be replaced by the law of Christ.
Christians inherited all the promises of God to Israel in the Bible; Jews retained all the Bible’s
prophetic criticism and condemnation. Jewish biblical interpretation was discounted, and the
“Old Testament” was assigned only a provisional validity. Judaism came to be regarded as
merely a historical and social entity at best and, at worst, a dead faith, the victim of a Pharisaicrabbinic obsession with legalistic piety.
In supersessionist theology, Jesus’ ministry is understood as having been in direct opposition to
Judaism. In consequence, Jesus is completely removed from his first-century Jewish context, and
he becomes the primary obstacle between Christians and Jews.
Why is supersessionism a problem?
Implied in the claim that Christians displaced Jews in the covenant with God is the notion that
Jews should stop being Jews and become Christians. This ideology undergirds a “teaching of
contempt” for Jews and Judaism that has marred relations between Christians and Jews for two
millennia. Over the centuries anti-Judaic attitudes buttressed by displacement theology have
produced evil fruit: legislation designed to discriminate against and suppress the Jews, and open
acts of violence—forced baptism, child stealing, population expulsions, and murderous pogroms.
Habits of hatred ultimately paved the way for the Nazis’ “Final Solution of the Jewish Problem.”
The supersessionist theology that created so many burdens for Jews has proved to be a problem
for Christians as well. Supersessionism distorted Christian doctrine as it developed in the early
Church. It continues to influence much contemporary Christian theology and is continually
reinforced by the preaching and teaching presented in many churches. To our shame, moreover,
supersessionist attitudes have fostered among Christians demonstrably un-Christian behavior.
Supersessionist theology raises crucial questions that a responsible Christianity cannot afford to
ignore. By far the most significant of these questions is this: What does supersessionist theology
imply about the morality and faithfulness of God? If God’s promises to the patriarchs and
matriarchs of the people Israel could be nullified by the coming of Jesus Christ, what guarantee
do Christians have that God’s promises to anyone are reliable?
Talmud: There are two Talmuds, one compiled around 400 C.E. in Jerusalem, and the other
around 500 C.E. in Babylonia. Both of these enormous volumes on Jewish law, teaching,
customs, and folklore consist of two parts—the Mishnah and the Gemarra. The Gemarra is,
primarily, commentary on the Mishnah and so is printed around the portion of the Mishnah to
which it refers. The Mishnah and Gemarra together contain explanations and discussions for
understanding the “written Torah” and are used for studying and arbitrating Jewish life.
Tanakh: This is an acronym used to refer to all the books in the Jewish Bible. The acronym
stands for Torah, Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings)—TaNaKh.
TEIKU: This word derives from the Aramaic word teikum, meaning “it will stand.” TEIKU is
also understood as an acronym for the Hebrew phrase, “Tishbi [i.e., Elijah the Prophet] will
resolve challenges and problems.” The phrase is invoked in the Talmud to end a particular
discussion, leaving it unresolved for all future generations until the return of the prophet Elijah.
Torah: Torah is a Hebrew word meaning “instruction” or “teaching.” Understood in a narrow
sense, Torah refers to the first five books of the Tanakh—Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers,
and Deuteronomy—which are also called “The Five Books of Moses.” In a broader sense, Torah
refers to all teaching and commentary on the Tanakh, including Talmud, Medieval Codes, Jewish
Law, and contemporary commentary.