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Transcript
Module 4 - 4.2.1 Maintaining Biodiversity By Ms Cullen What human activities do you think reduce biodiversity? Brainstorm How is climate change affecting biodiversity? • Adaptation – most species are adapted to survive a particular climate • Migration – Hornets previously only found in Southern England are now found in the Midlands. • Extinction – Panama 1998 How is climate change affecting agriculture? • How will increased levels of CO2 and increased temperatures affect crop yield? • How will increased transpiration rates & changes in precipitation affect crops? • How will rising sea levels affect agriculture? • Will it matter that we have selectively bred many of our crops and livestock? • What could be the result of extreme weather systems? How is climate change affecting disease? • As new crops are grown in new areas they could encounter new pests and diseases. • As areas become warmer and wetter some diseases may spread eg the anopheles mosquito which is the host for the disease malaria may well migrate. • Warm, wet conditions can also increase the spread of fungal diseases. • An increased spread of diseases could lead to a reduction in biodiversity. Why do you think we need to conserve species? Brainstorm Economic reasons Ecosystems perform processes that are valuable to humans – - Ecological Reasons Organisms have complex relationships with their environments. The loss of just one species can have a major effect – - Aesthetic Reasons • • • Ethical Reasons • • • What is a keystone species? A keystone species is a species that has a disproportionately large effect on its environment relative to its abundance. They fit into 3 categories: 1. Predators eg sea otters which maintain sea kelp forests by consuming sea urchins. What is a keystone species? 2. Mutualists eg the cassowary in New Guinea and Australia, many seeds will not germinate until they have been through their gut! 3. Engineers eg elephants which destroy trees, making room for more plant species and dispersing seeds in their dung. Also the prairie dog in North America – find out why! So now we know why we should conserve species............ .........how do we do it? In situ conservation of endangered species • Generally this is the best method of conservation, preserving a species where it naturally lives. • This involves protecting the habitat eg nature reserves or national parks. In these areas habitats can be protected by restricting urban & industrial development and farming. • Or preventing human activity from endangering the species further eg people who live, work and holiday in the habitat. In situ conservation of endangered species • A Marine Conservation Zone (MCZ) is a type of marine nature reserve in the UK. • They are established under law since 2009 and are areas designated with the aim to protect nationally important, rare or threatened habitats and species. • About 20% of UK waters now have some protection. • Local ones include; Poole rocks, South Dorset and The Needles on the IOW. In situ conservation of endangered species • Controlling or preventing the introduction of other species that may threaten local species diversity. • Protecting habitats eg coppicing woodland, maintaining water levels in wetland areas. • Restoring damaged areas eg after an oil spill. • Promoting particular species by providing nesting sites or protecting food sources. • Giving legal protection to endangered species (eg CITES) Disadvantages of in situ conservation • The disadvantages are that often the endangered species lives in an area where humans are also struggling for survival and this can cause conflict between the needs of local human populations and the threatened species. • Perhaps the best way to overcome this is by getting local people involved in conservation projects eg giving people jobs within the conservation project. Disadvantages of in situ conservation • Every time an in situ conservation programme takes place it is important to assess the potential affects of that programme on other species. eg a large elephant population can damage vegetation, which can reduce the stability of the habitat for other species. Disadvantages of in situ conservation • In some cases the difficulties are so great that it is unlikely that in situ conservation will be successful. • This is particularly true when there is so little suitable habitat left to maintain a viable population of the endangered species – sometimes this is temporary in the case of the scimitar-horned Oryx, but unfortunately in some cases it may be more permanent – for example tigers may be impossible to conserve in situ as a result of hunting and habitat loss. ex situ conservation of endangered species • While the most efficient and effective means of conserving biodiversity is the management of biological communities in situ, many species require additional support. • Working with ex situ populations, directly manages populations of endangered species through cooperative captive breeding programmes, providing technical support to build wider capacity for this work and undertaking research to inform population management. • Studies of populations in captivity can yield important information to support broader conservation goals. Ex situ research focuses on key species and principles of population management to meet broader conservation goals. This includes understanding the influence of both large (population level) and small scale (husbandry) management decisions on the success of captive breeding programmes and the ability to maintain these small populations over time. Disadvantages of ex situ conservation • Only a small number of individuals can be cared for. • Can be difficult and expensive to create and maintain a suitable environment for breeding. • Ex situ is less successful than in situ conservation, some species do not breed successfully in captivity or can not adapt to their new environment. Advantages of ex situ conservation • The environment can be controlled, therefore factors like predation and hunting can be more easily controlled. • Can be used as a method to reintroduce a species that has become extinct in an area. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I-7wLdKjf2Y The Role of Botanic Gardens • These are important in the conservation of endangered plant species. • Seeds or cuttings can be collected from the wild and then used to build a population of plants. These can then in the future be used to repopulate their natural habitats. • The Millenium Seed Bank project began in 2000, its aim is to collect and store 10% of the world’s plant species, so that even if they become extinct in the future, there will still be seeds available which can be grown into new plants. The Role of Botanic Gardens • If possible seeds are collected from several different sites, as this ensures a range of genetic variation. • Some seeds are easy to store but some need special conditions, others can not be stored as seeds and will have to be kept as adult plants. • Stored seeds will have to be grown into plants so that new seeds can be collected, as most seeds will not survive for too many years. • Botanical gardens are also important for research, display and education. The importance of genetic biodiversity • Within a species there is a very little variation within their DNA. • All individuals within a species share the same genes, but may have different versions of the same genes, known as alleles. • The more alleles there are in a populations of a species, the greater their gene pool and the more genetically biodiverse that population is. • Species with greater genetic biodiversity are more likely to adapt and survive. Remember Evolution occurs via Natural selection: • Variation with individuals. • Selection Pressures eg predation, competition, disease. • Best adapted individuals survive, breed and pass on beneficial alleles. • This results in a greater proportion of the next generation having the beneficial allele. • They in turn survive, breed and pass on the beneficial allele. • The frequency of the beneficial allele within the gene pool will increase. • This process is called natural selection. Factors which increase number of alleles will increase genetic biodiversity • • Factors which decrease number of alleles will decrease genetic biodiversity • • • • • • • • Measuring genetic biodiversity – Genetic Polymorphism • Alleles of the same gene are found in the same position or loci on a chromosome. • Polymorphism is when a locus has 2 or more alleles – blood groups is an example of this; IA, IB and IO are all possible alleles. • If you work out how many chromosomes in an organism have more than one possible allele (ie polymorphism) this will give a measure of genetic diversity. Measuring genetic biodiversity – Genetic Polymorphism • This can be done using the following formula: Proportion of polymorphic gene loci = number of polymorphic gene loci total number of loci • These calculation are used to monitor the genetic diversity of populations over time and are particularly important for monitoring genetic diversity in breeding programmes in zoos, which are closely managed to maximise genetic diversity. Measuring genetic biodiversity – Genetic Polymorphism Example: If 100 genes in a population are sampled and 34 are polymorphic then proportion of polymorphic gene loci = 34/100 = 0.34 This may be expressed as a % in this case 34% The higher the proportion of polymorphic gene loci the more biodiverse the population. Look at the worked example on P.277 of Kerboodle. So how can we conserve biodiversity? International cooperation CITES • Convention in International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and fauna. • Set up in 1973, 145 countries signed an agreement which controls the trade in endangered species and products from them. • More countries have joined since. http://www.cites.org/ CITES Species are assigned to one of three appendicies: - Appendix I species that are considered to be most endangered and threatened with extinction, therefore trade is prohibited (exceptions may be made for captive breeding programmes). - Appendix II these species are not necessarily threatened with extinction, but may become so if trade is not controlled. Trade is only granted if an export permit is provided by the country from which the organism is taken. - Appendix III includes species where there is regulated trade. Permits are required to import and export these species and they are more likely to be granted then species in Appendix II. CITES • These species lists are constantly reviewed and increasing. • CITES also works to raise awareness of threats to biodiversity through education. • A disadvantage of CITES is the illegal trade that occurs due to the species fetching high prices. • When it is announced that a species will go on the list, during the time between the announcement and the law being passed trade in that species will often increase rapidly. IUCN Red List • The International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. • The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ provides taxonomic, conservation status and distribution information on plants and animals that have been globally evaluated using the IUCN redlist categories. • The main purpose of the IUCN Red List is to catalogue and highlight those plants and animals that are facing a higher risk of global extinction (i.e. those listed as Critically Endangered, Endangered and Vulnerable). http://www.iucnredlist.org/ IUCN Red List The IUCN Red List also includes information on: • plants and animals that are categorized as Extinct or Extinct in the Wild • species that cannot be evaluated because of insufficient information (i.e., are Data Deficient) • plants and animals that are either close to meeting the threatened thresholds or that would be threatened were it not for an ongoing species-specific conservation programme (i.e., are Near Threatened). Rio Convention on Biodiversity • In 1992 world leaders attended the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, to discuss the sustainable uses of the Earth’s resources. • Out of this meeting came the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), which was signed by 157 countries agreeing to protect their countries biodiversity. • In 2007 their were 190 countries signed up. http://www.un.org/geninfo/bp/enviro.html Impact of the Rio Summit in the UK • In 1994 the Department of the Environment set out an action plan to maintain biodiversity in the UK. • The plan included objectives for conserving species and their habitats. • Local Biodiversity Action Plans were drawn up for all parts of UK and these are constantly revised. • SSSIs (Sites of Special Scientific Interest) were identified and protected either as a result of the species present there or habitats that they provide. Impact of the Rio Summit in the UK • Recently, it has been realised that all areas need to be protected. • Grants are given to farmers to maintain hedges, create ponds or leave a margin around arable fields. • Industries are encouraged to create and maintain ‘wild’ areas on their sites. • Gardens are an important havens for wildlife. Impact of the Rio Summit in the UK • On 4th - 6th June 2012, the UN Conference on Sustainable Development (UNCSD) or 'Rio+20' took place in Rio de Janeiro. • It is also referred to as the Rio+20 Earth Summit, due to the initial conference held in Rio in 1992. • The objectives of the Summit were: to secure renewed political commitment to sustainable development; to assess progress towards goals for sustainable development and to address new challenges. • The Summit also focused on the green economy and sustainable development. Local Conservation Countryside Stewardship Scheme (CSS) The UK government provides financial incentives for farmers, woodland owners, foresters and other land managers to look after their environment through activities such as: • • • • • • • conserving and restoring wildlife habitats flood risk management woodland creation and management reducing widespread water pollution from agriculture keeping the character of the countryside preserving features important to the history of the rural landscape encouraging educational access EIA • Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) has to be submitted every time a new development is planned eg housing, roads, sewage works etc • An EIA also has to be submitted if significant alterations are to be made to existing developments. • EIAs provide a full assessment of the effect of a development on the species present in the area. EIA • Environmental Consultants will carry out EIAs. • If there are any species present that are protected eg great crested newts or bats, or if the development is thought to harm the biodiversity, then the developer must put in place measures to prevent this. • This can be very expensive and the developer is liable for it, therefore it is in the developers interest to employ consultants who have a record of not finding too many potential problems! Heathrow Terminal 5 EIA During the construction of Terminal 5 at Heathrow an environmental impact assessment (EIA) was carried out and as a result the ‘twin rivers’, Longford and Duke of Northumberland’s rivers, which run across the site were diverted. Case Studies Research one of the following conservation projects , the organisations involved, whether it is in situ or ex situ and the success of it. Why is it important to conserve these species? Include references. • Scimitar-horned oryx • Great bustard www.marwell.org.uk http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/projects/greatbustard.asp • • • • African Elephant Polar Bears Orangutans Mountain Gorilla http://www.panda.org/what_we_do/endangered_species/