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EAST ASIA
The transition to settled agricultural communities began along the Yellow River in China around 8000
B.C.E. By the second millennium B.C.E., the first Chinese dynasty emerged, and the foundation for two
thousand years of Chinese history was established. Over that time, China became an economic and
political force that was often the envy of peoples near and far.
Like river valley civilizations elsewhere, early Chinese settlements took advantage of the rich, fertile
land along the Yellow and Yangzi Rivers. The geography of eastern Asia, however, kept Chinese
civilizations isolated from those in the Middle East and the Indus River Valley. The climate of the
southern region was well suited for growing rice, which produces a very high yield but requires
substantial time and labor. As a result, the population and importance of the southern region
eventually exceeded that of the northern region. Early civilizations in China exhibited many of the
same characteristics as those elsewhere. Plants and animals were domesticated, stone and eventually
bronze tools were used, and pottery was produced on a wheel and fired in a kiln. Labor was divided,
and political and social structures took shape.
In 1750 B.C.E. the history of China truly began when the Shang clan rose to power. Originating in the
Yellow River Valley, the Shang extended their control by means of their military strength and
strategy. The Shang were ruled by a king, who was seen as an intermediary between the gods and
the people. To expand and manage the land, the king was aided by an aristocracy that acted as
generals, ambassadors, and public servants. Conquered territory was governed by members of the royal
family, and far-off lands were left to native rulers who swore their allegiance to the king. Many of the
conquered people were taken as prisoners of war and enslaved by the Shang rulers.
Shang cities grew into political and social centers. Surrounded by agricultural areas, cities were laid
out on a grid and served as hubs for a far-reaching trade network. Jade, ivory, silk, and bronze
weapons and vessels were prized by outsiders, who carried them perhaps as far as Mesopotamia.
Writing developed under the Shang and facilitated administration, even though only a small number of
the elite had time to master this skill. Examples of early Chinese writing are apparent from a custom
of divination using oracle bones. When a person sought the advice of the gods on an issue, he or
she would visit an oracle, who would scratch the person's question on an anim al bone or shell,
then heat them until they cracked. They would then interpret the cracks as messages form the gods
or deal relatives—further showcasing the Chinese notion of ancestor worship.
In 1027 B.C.E. the last Shang king was defeated by the Zhou, who established the longest-lasting
dynasty in Chinese history and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven, the key to the
dynastic cycle that would last nearly three thousand years. To justify the overthrow of the Shang king,
Zhou rulers claimed that the new ruler had been chosen by "Heaven" and should be seen as the "Son
of Heaven." As long as the king was a moral servant of the people, he would retain the Mandate of
Heaven and China would prosper. If the king became corrupt, then he would lose the Mandate of
Heaven, justifying his replacement. The end of the Shang was marked by corruption, violence, greed,
and arrogance; therefore, according to the Zhou, the overthrow was justified.
The Zhou dynasty retained many of the traditions and rituals of the Shang and was similarly
decentralized. The dynasty was divided into over one hundred territories, each ruled by allies or
relations of the king. Government officials were expected to rule in a fair and moral fashion. This
system worked well for a time, but around 800 B.C.E., territories began to compete with one another
for power until 480 B.C.E, when China entered a two-hundred-year phase known as the Warring
States Period.
During this era, many of the state rulers imposed an authoritarian system known as Legalism in
order to keep their subjects under control and promote the state above the individual. Legalism was
based on the view that because human nature is evil, order is maintained with laws and punishment.
This same philosophy became the guiding practice of the first empire that reunified china after this era.
It was during the Zhou dynasty that the roots of another, more important philosophical and managerial
approach were established. Though his influence would not be felt until after his death, Confucius (551479 B.C.E.) established his teachings based on the culture and practices of the Zhou dynasty. Confucius
drew parallels between the family and the state, with the king serving as a father figure to his people
and ruling with their interests at heart. Coincidentally, social structure of the later Zhou period moved
from the clan-based system to the smaller family model that included grandparents, parents, and
children. With the help of its followers, Confucianism would eventually become the philosophy that
future dynasties embraced as a means to establish a clear social structure based on mutual respect and
obedience.
The Warring States Period inspired another important Chinese philosopher, Laozi (believed to have
lived in the sixth century B.C.E.), who conceived Daoism as an alternative to the authoritarian nature of
Legalism and the rigid hierarchy of Confucianism. Daoism promoted an end to conflict by teaching
people to follow the path (Dao) and to accept the world instead of seeking to change it. He taught that
people should learn to yield to the nature forces around them in order to obtain balance, see harmony in
the mix between yin (male, assertiveness) and yang (female, submissiveness).
Throughout the Shang and Zhou dynasties, China's patriarchal nature resembled that of many other
early civilizations and empires: the father was the head of the family, and women were expected to
tend to the household. Marriage was often an economic and political tool to promote power among
elite families. Any land the family owned belonged to the father and was divided among his sons
upon his death.