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VAULTED
CEILINGS
SOLUTION GUIDE
SOLUTION
GUIDES
CONTENTS
3
Glossary
4
Introduction
8
Reference project
10
Ultimate Specification - Technical description
13
System performance
15
Environmental performance
31
Our sustainability strategy
38
References
39
GLOSSARY
Air stratification
Reflectance
The distinct layering of air dependent on its
temperature creating a vertical temperature
gradient, from cool to warm.
Defines a material’s ability to reflect solar
energy, it is also commonly referred to as
albedo 3.
HVAC
Thermal comfort
Heating, Ventilation and Air Conditioning
is concerned with the provision of thermal
comfort in buildings.
Describes a person’s state of mind in terms
of whether they feel too hot or cold 4.
Radiant cooling
The daily temperature shift that occurs
between daytime and night time
temperatures 2.
The removal of heat from a space due to the
action of thermal radiation, requiring line of
sight. Flows will occur from objects as long as
their temperature remains above that of other
elements 1.
Thermal mass
The ability of material to absorb, store and
release heat 2.
Diurnal temperature variation
Fabric energy storage
The utilisation of thermal mass in buildings
and its ability to store energy 5.
Perimeter zone
Area within a building that is typically
most significantly affected by out door
conditions, such as noise, temperature
and solar radiation 6.
4
5
Our approach to construction encompasses
innovative sustainable products, efficient
building systems and practical solutions.
We recognise the important role we have
in promoting sustainable construction by
optimising our products, their use and whole
life performance. This document is one of
a suite that identifies specific construction
solutions that can help deliver a sustainable
built environment. They explore the details of
each system, its performance benefits, how
it can be implemented in a project and then
compares its environmental performance
against alternative solutions.
This document introduces Vaulted Ceilings,
which form part of a building’s structural
frame, identifying an approach to slab soffit
construction that can be used to provide
thermal comfort benefits to occupants.
Typical Applications
Building sectors: Office and commercial
buildings, schools, universities, convention
centres and public facilities.
6
Vaulted ceilings utilised in an
open office environment.
7
INTRODUCTION
Vaulted ceilings are profiled concrete ceilings which form part of a building’s
structural frame. Through careful design they can form part of the solution to
mitigate a building’s cooling and ventilation demands, with the ability to address
future cooling demands due to expected increases in global temperatures.
ADVANTAGES
The profiled shape enables a larger surface
area of the material to be exposed, optimising
access to the concrete’s thermal mass which
can attenuate internal heat energy gains.
In open office applications with walls typically
constructed of extensive glazing and floors
covered, it is typically only the ceiling that
offers a large enough exposed expanse to
provide sufficient thermal mass capacity.
Other advantages include
• Thermal comfort
• Integration of services
• Improved daylighting
• Improved ventilation
• Adaptability to future climate change
• Structurally efficient
• Energy efficiency.
8
Project: Lafarge Tarmac Head Office
Location: Solihull
Client: Lafarge Tarmac
Developer: Stoford Developments Ltd
Architects: Webb Gray and
Vincent and Gorbing
Year: 2007
Office space: 5,570 m²
Project Value: £22 million
Green Rating: BREEAM Office ‘Very Good’
9
EXPERIENCE
After the acquisition of Blue Circle Cement to enhance the offering from
Lafarge Tarmac, there was a need to create a purpose built home to bring the
two businesses together.
In order to compliment the sustainable ambitions of the company the brief was set
to create a sustainable and efficient building, which would satisfy the requirements
of the newly expanded business whilst maintaining the potential for future growth.
The solution was a purpose built sustainable development that utilised improved
methods of construction and optimised the fabric of the building to offer more
than just structural performance.
10
Stoford Developments were approached to
lead the project and, with architects Webb
Gray, devised a steel frame solution to fulfil
the minimum requirements of the project.
Lafarge Tarmac worked in close collaboration
with their architects, Vincent and Gorbing,
and the project team, to optimise and develop
the project. Concrete was introduced as a
fundamental structural material, enhancing the
sustainable credentials of the building.
Concrete created the opportunities for savings
to be realised throughout the buildings life.
The design was based around a concrete
frame complemented with external concrete
columns and a glazed façade. Open office
areas made use of the concrete frame,
through exposing the soffits of slabs which
were constructed in a barrel-vaulted form.
Access to the soffits allowed the structure’s
thermal mass to be utilised. The vaulted shape
increased the surface area for heat transfer,
increasing its cooling potential.
Utilising the thermal mass created a ‘free
cooling’ system that helped to mitigate the
heating effect of occupants and equipment
and complemented thermal comfort by
11
providing a radiant cooling effect. The
implementation of this approach provided
savings as HVAC requirements were reduced.
When a structures thermal mass is used
to aid cooling, night purging is required to
ready the material for the next day’s cooling
demand, typically through opening windows.
Due to the sites location, next to Birmingham
International Airport and Train Station this was
not possible. In its place an air displacement
ventilation system was implemented, which
also increased the access to the thermal mass
of the building.
The air displacement ventilation system
works by treated air being introduced into a
void underneath the floor, where it comes
into contact with the exposed concrete slab,
cooling the air due to transfer of heat energy
facilitated by the thermal mass. This is then
distributed into the populated space through
swirl diffusers, creating a low velocity air flow
within the room.
As it is warmed by room heat sources,
occupants and equipment (reaching 23°C), the
air rises up to ceiling level where it is trapped
with the vaulted bays. This enables the warm
air to interact with the thermal mass of
the vaults and begin to be cooled prior to
extraction. The extracted air is mixed with
fresh air, to provide an acceptable level of air
quality, before re-circulation into occupied
spaces (at approximately 18°C). No cooling
system is required as the high thermal mass
exposed in the structure has sufficient capacity
to cool the air temperature from 23°C to 18°C.
Significant additional benefits were also
Air extraction vents
realised through the inclusion of barrel
vaulted ceilings, including improved acoustic
control and increased natural daylighting. The
effective increase in ceiling height within the
vaults and the naturally light colour of the
concrete offered high levels of reflectance
allowing light to penetrate further into the
open office space. Implementing a vaulted
concrete ceiling solution contributed to
creating a 38% reduction in office energy costs
when compared to a typical air conditioned
prestige office 8.
Floor void
Floor air
diffusers
Exposed slab
Raised floor
Illustration of the layout of Solihull
HQ utilising vaulted ceilings and air
displacement ventilation
12
Vaulted ceilings are part of the intrinsic fabric of a building and can play
a significant role in improving the cooling and ventilation strategy of a
building. Their foremost application is to fulfil the structural performance
requirements of the building where they can be used in place of more
traditional construction systems such as flat slab, steel decking or composite
With the implementation of this system, it is possible to realise the wider potential that key
structural materials can offer to improve the operational performance of buildings, despite
having been historically selected on physical properties 9 alone.
Vaulted ceilings can be created by either the inclusion of profiled cutouts within a traditional
flat slab soffit or the construction of arched structural elements. Both methods are viable for
precast and insitu concrete construction solutions. It is the latter, arched structural elements,
which create the most distinct change from conventional approaches.
SPECIFICATION
13
Conventional and traditional approaches
typically utilise a flat soffit with the
requirement to suspend a false ceiling in order
to create a service void for essential and HVAC
systems. A vaulted system can replace this
void due to the curvature of the slab, creating
a void between the upper surface of the
element and the floor of the storey above. It is
then possible to utilise this void to run services
rather than the traditional construction of
a separate suspended ceiling system 10 and
facilitates the possibility to add rebates and
access points for services within the structure.
The presence of this void also creates an
opportunity to implement an under floor
ventilation system, which allows further access
to the structure’s inherent thermal mass.
Vaulted ceiling element
Beam support for
vaulted ceiling
Supporting column
14
PERFORMANCE
THERMAL COMFORT
In office environments where a consistent level of thermal comfort cannot be maintained there
is anecdotal and quantified evidence stating that this can have a detrimental effect of occupant
performance 11.
Concrete can offer a high level of fabric energy storage (FES), providing the capacity to store
large amounts of heat energy. This allows unwanted heat gain or generated heat energy to be
absorbed helping to maintain thermal comfort levels.
Vaulted or profiled ceilings increase the exposed surface area of concrete optimising access to
thermal mass, which can help to provide a cooling effect 12. Incorporation of this system offers
the potential to reduce a buildings cooling energy demand 14.
Diagram right:
Representation of the effect that thermal
mass has on thermal comfort 11.
15
Heat energy is primarily absorbed via radiation,
whether from occupants, equipment or
objects, as long as they are of a higher
temperature than the concrete itself.
Absorption will continue throughout the day,
whilst occupants will also experience a radiant
cooling effect, due to high levels of fabric
energy storage. This approach helps stabilise
internal temperature and can delay the peak
temperatures by 5 or 6 hours, to typically fall
outside of office hours 12.
When the 24 hour cooling cycle of a typical
office is considered, 100mm of concrete has
been stated to be sufficient to mitigate these
heat gains 5. However, over longer periods of
increased temperatures (i.e. weeks or months)
concrete in excess of 100mm can be beneficial
as this provides sufficient additional capacity
to moderate these associated energy gains.
Displacement ventilation systems also increase
the efficiency of thermal mass by enabling
access to the top surface of slabs.
Peak temperature delayed
by up to six hours
Up to 6-8 °C difference
between peak external
and internal temperature
30 °C
temperature
15 °C
Day
Internal temperature
with high thermal mass
Night
Internal temperature
with low thermal mass
Day
External
temperature
16
16
17
INTEGRATION OF SERVICES
IMPROVED DAYLIGHTING
Typical approaches to services integration sees
the majority hidden within suspended ceilings.
Vaulted ceilings and exposed soffits prevent
this traditional approach as access to thermal
mass is required; however this does allow a
simple and clean design to be achieved.
Daylighting can be improved through
increasing light penetration and reflectance 19.
Vaulted ceilings provide an increase in soffit
height, enabling windows to be placed higher
on external walls, promoting light to penetrate
further into a building.
Exposed soffit approaches can also be easily
integrated with displacement ventilation
systems, which require a raised floor creating
a void. This void can be utilised as a key service
route removing the need for many over head
services.
As a material with a comparably high albedo,
untreated concrete can offer high levels of
reflectance which promote light penetration 3.
It is also possible to design slabs with voids
and rebates to act as service routes, due to
the flexibility offered by concrete.
Levels of albedo and reflectance can be
further enhanced through the use of white
cement or substitute materials such as ground
granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS).
18
IMPROVED VENTILATION
Through the integration of vaulted ceilings in
HVAC systems, improvements in ventilation
quality can be achieved, due to the action of
air displacement. The availability of thermal
mass improves the operation of an air
displacement system due to its heat energy
storage capacity 15. With this system air is
introduced into the under floor void which in
turn flows into the room via floor diffusers.
Introduced air is cooler than required for
thermal comfort and creates a layer of cool
air at floor level. As this air enters it displaces
the warm air above it, which has been slowly
warmed by heat emitters within the room.
This displacement creates a chain effect
displacing the warmer air above it until it is
trapped within the vaults of the ceiling.
19
This hot air is extracted at ceiling level where
it is either removed or re-circulated with fresh
air. As it comes into contact with the thermal
mass in the vaulted ceiling and the exposed
under floor slab it is cooled to required
temperatures 16.
This process creates an air flow due to air
stratification, which prevents the mixing of
warm air with cooler, fresher air within the
building, improving the quality of air at
occupied levels 13. Care must be taken to
ensure that introduced air is not too cold
as this can create of cold spots or short
circuiting of air flows, typically present with air
conditioning systems 17. Floor diffusers avoid
this issue as they can be spread evenly around
office areas, whereas air conditioning systems
typically only provide a fixed source of air.
Hot contaminated air is removed
Temperature
gradient
Air rises as it is
warmed by
occupants
and equipment
Cool fresh air enters the room through floor diffusers
Illustrationdemonstrating
demonstrating
flow
of air
within
occupied
Illustration
thethe
flow
of air
within
occupied
spacesspaces
and the
subsequent
temperature
gradient.
and
the subsequent
temperature
gradient.20 20
21
ADAPTABILITY TO FUTURE
CLIMATE CHANGE
Reports have shown that UK temperatures
are rising and that summer peak temperatures
could rise by as much as 7°C by 2080.
Sucha significant rise in temperature will
see a increased demand for cooling within
buildings 7,18. Whilst concrete vaulted ceilings
offer the ability to provide passive cooling
through increased fabric energy storage
capacity, this may not be enough to mitigate
these temperature rises.
However their capabilities can be increased
through the integration of cooling systems.
These can be hollow core systems, where air
is passed through voids, or water based
systems, created by the embedding of pipes.
The concrete can be purged of excess stored
heat as low temperature air or water is passed
through each system 15. These solutions can
be incorporated into concrete ceilings and
remain dormant until required. Displacement
ventilation systems can also be boosted by
the integration of cooling coils to reduce
the temperature of air introduced into the
system 15.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
A vaulted ceiling system can help to reduce a
building’s cooling energy demand, with further
reductions achievable if combined with
passive cooling. Where this is not feasible air
displacement systems can be utilised to satisfy
both cooling and ventilation requirements.
Each system is a low energy solution which
utilises the natural properties (thermal
mass) or tendencies (air stratification) of the
materials involved.
Any reduction in energy demand can be seen
to be beneficial to operational costs over
the life span of the building and can, with
responsible design, provide a relatively prompt
payback period 5,20.
The use of underfloor ventilation distribution
systems also offers an improvement in
adaptability when considering future use.
Diffusion points enable a simple process of
relocation if layouts change when compared
to ceiling based or fixed systems 10.
22
STRESSES
O X,+(km/cm2)
0.45
0.39
0.32
0.26
0.20
0.13
0.07
0.01
-0.05
-0.12
-0.18
-0.24
Max:
Min:
0.45
-0.24
Finite element anaysis of vaulted panel
Finite
element
of vaulted panel
identifying
steelanaysis
requirements.
23
identifying steel requirements
23
The analysis carried out on the vaulted panel was completed with
Dlubal Structural and Dynamic analysis software.
The vaulted panel was compared against a 9m span reinforced flat slab
for the design of a multi-storey office development
STRUCTURALLY EFFICIENT
AESTHETICS
When compared to conventional flat slabs,
vaulted or profiled slabs can utilise less
material to fulfil the same specification
requirements. This is achieved due to the
sectional geometry that exists with vaulted
and profiled slabs, which provides a higher
bending resistance.
Vaulted ceilings offer a different architectural
form to what can be achieved through
traditional flat soffits, creating the opportunity
to develop the aesthetic offering of exposed
concrete.
Material savings of up to 50% can be achieved
when conventional slabs are replaced with
vaulted slabs. Savings can be transferred to
other structural elements as reductions in
weight can also reduce the performance
requirements of supporting elements,
in turn reducing the embodied impacts
of the building †.
Concrete by its nature is a versatile material
which can be readily adapted and designed to
meet architectural requirements whether a
complex design or simply pigmentation.
High quality finishes can be achieved through
the use of specialised concretes, such as selfcompacting concrete, which can accurately
reflect formwork finishes (which can be
enhanced using formwork liners).
24
PERFORMANCE
Whilst the fundamental approach of concrete vaulted ceiling construction is not
a complete step change from conventional methods, additional consideration is
required when changing from a flat or composite slab with suspended ceilings.
The following is not an exhaustive list but highlights some key subjects that
should be considered prior to and during construction.
25
SYSTEM PERFORMANCE
VENTILATION STRATEGY
When considering the implementation of a
vaulted ceiling system, its performance should
be assessed at the earliest possible stage of
a project. Any assessment should be carried
out in line with work on the buildings HVAC
strategy.
The UK’s diurnal temperature variation allows
passive natural strategies to employed in
order to purge stored heat energy from the
building’s fabric 2. This is typically only possible
where site location allows for the opening of
windows.
It should be noted that fabric energy
storage systems have the potential to offset
approximately 20-40 W/m2 of solar heat gains 5,
which should be taken into full consideration.
In areas where this is not possible, mechanical
ventilation systems will usually be required to
ensure effective performance. Displacement
ventilation systems can be implemented to
provide a low energy alternative which can
help optimise the exposed thermal mass 15.
26
THERMAL MASS
DAYLIGHTING
The thermal mass that is present within a
concrete vaulted ceiling is integral to the
achievement of the cooling effect that can
be achieved within a building.
Vaulted and profiled ceilings offer the ability
to allow light to penetrate further into
occupied spaces due to increases in ceiling
height.
Varying reports and commentaries state that it
is only the thermal mass to a depth of 100mm
that can be accessed within an element. It
is true that a depth of 100mm will provide
enough thermal mass to react to 24 hour
cooling cycles, however this does not take
into account longer temperature cycles such
as weekly or monthly periods of increased
temperatures.
Design decisions to optimise the daylighting
potential should consider the finish that is
required at the face of concrete elements.
Increased depths of concrete can be
successfully used to mitigate these
temperatures 21. It is possible to access more
of the thermal mass capacity of the concrete
by utilising under floor ventilation or cooling
systems, improving its performance and
unlocking more of its potential.
27
Mix designs can be optimised to provide light
surface finishes or they can be simply painted
to enhance surface reflectance.
Additional design approaches can be
implemented such as; high level windows
at the crest of profiles and the use of light
shelves 21 to reflect incoming light onto and
into the vaulted and profiled spaces.
28
Conran K Partners
29
Varsity Hotel, Cambridge
FORMWORK
MATERIAL
The finished quality of concrete is dictated
by the quality of formwork and workmanship
that has been used to create it. It is necessary
to employ rigorous quality systems in
to ensure that requisite final finishes are
achieved, enforced by a specification based
on decisions taken prior to construction.
In highly visual applications the correct
specification and selection of material is
integral to achieving high quality results.
Traditional concrete mix design for
architectural applications sees the inclusion
of high proportions of fine materials as this
aids the finish.
The National Structural Concrete
Specification 22 provides a good guide for the
creation of a job specific specification.
However, recent developments have seen the
introduction of self-compacting concretes,
which can exceed the performance and
quality of conventional concretes, whilst also
mitigating risk and potential issues surrounding
workmanship.
A specification should consider all aspects
of construction; including formwork and
placement processes but also acceptable
standards for the finished element (trial panels
and sample panels are effective in delivering
this).
It is recommended that the design team liaise
with the material supplier at an early project
stage to detail exact material requirements
and to enable the supplier’s expertise and
previous experience to be utilised effectively.
30
SUSTAINABILITY
COMPARISON OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL FOOTPRINTS
An environmental study comparing different slab solutions for a multi-story office
development has been carried out to assess the sustainable credentials of vaulted
ceilings.
The solutions compared have been designed to satisfy the same structural
performance principles and the differences between each system are a result of
the inherent properties of each system. The scope of analysis has been limited to
production and installation over a 1m2 floor area and is based upon the principles of
ISO 14040 23 and ISO 14044 24.
System A is the vaulted ceiling solution, System B created with void formers,
System C hollow core and System D a composite metal decking.
31
600 100
3000
40
System A
Floor with vaulted ceiling panel
30
300
10 210 10
System B
Concrete floor with void formers
200
185
40
System C
Floor with hollow core slab
266
40
1160
180
40
77
System D
Steel structure with composite
metal decking floor
180
40
150
50
32
Total primary energy
Process energy
(= embodied enery)
Photochemical
ozon formation
Depletion of
abiotic resources
Air acidification
Water consumption
Greenhouse effect
Production of waste
A - Floor with vaulted ceiling panel
B - Floor with hollow core slab
C - Concrete floor with void formers
D - Steel structure with composite
metal decking floor
33
GREENHOUSE EFFECT
A vaulted ceiling system emits less greenhouse gases when compared to alternative systems,
due to the reduction in required steel.
PRIMARY AND EMBODIED ENERGY
Steel reduction in vaulted ceilings, has a significant impact on the amount of energy, primary
and embodied, required to produce the vaulted systems.
DEPLETION OF ABIOTIC RESOURCES
Production of both steel and concrete requires large quantities of abiotic resources.
The efficiency of the vaulted shape enables material quantities to be reduced.
Photochemical ozone formation: is caused by
NOx, VOC and CO which can create low level
ozone, this can have a damaging effect on
humans at high concentration levels but also
vegetation on low levels.
Air acidification: SO2 and NOx are key causes
of acidification. When expelled into the
atmosphere as they return to earth they can
damage and accelerate damage to buildings,
with an additional detrimental effect on soil
and vegetation.
Primary energy: describes energy that is
found in nature that has not been subject to
a transformation or conversion process.
Embodied energy: is the energy required
to create and produce the system.
Depletion of abiotic resources: is the use
of resources that come from non-living
and non-organic materials.
34
RECYCLING
BES 6001*
The concrete industry has taken significant
steps to improve its performance in terms
of material reuse, reducing the depletion of
abiotic resources, increasing energy efficiency
and reducing carbon emissions.
Lafarge Tarmac has achieved a ‘Very Good’
rating for all its production sites and products.
The independent third-party scheme assesses
responsible sourcing polices and practices
throughout the supply chain 27.
Significant improvements have already been
achieved compared to the industry’s 1990
baseline 25.
With respect to material reuse and the
depletion of abiotic resources, concrete
readily utilises recycled and secondary
materials along with cement replacements.
This has enabled the industry to be a net user
of waste, using 47 times more waste than it
generates 25, and concrete itself is also 100%
recyclable 25.
ISO 14001
Lafarge Tarmac are fully accredited with
ISO 14001 with an operational effective
Environmental Management System,
maintaining our commitment to reducing
our environmental impact 29.
‡
Lafarge Tarmac concrete products offer the ability to conform with a wide-ranging number of assessment criteria in both BREEAM and LEED for
more information contact Lafarge Tarmac sustainability team.
* Our BES 6001 certificate number is CPRS 00004.
35
SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT SCHEMES
Concrete can play an extended role in enabling an efficient building to be created. Concrete can
contribute in a number of assessment schemes and help achieve a range of credits ‡.
CREDIT/TARGET
BREEAM †
C
LEED
Man 03: Responsible construction practices
Lafarge Tarmac’s Carbon Calculator has the capability
to determine and provide data relating to the CO2
arising from the production and delivery of our
products.
MR Credit 4: Recycled content
Concrete is a versatile material whose deisgn can
be readily adapted to enable the use of recycled,
secondary or replacement materials.
Hea 01: Visual Comfort
Concrete naturally offers a relatively high albedo when
compared to other construction materials. Concrete’s
mix design and finishes can be optimised to further
improve its albedo and reflectance.
MR Credit 5: Regional materials
Concrete is one of the few materials that is produced
locally to where it is used. It can typically be supplied
from within 10 miles of any given site.
Ene 01: Reduction of CO2 Emissions
Optimisation of design to utilise thermal mass enables
energy reductions through reduced cooling, heating
and ventilation demands.
IEQ 8.1: Daylight and Views – Daylight
Concrete naturally offers a relatively high albedo when
compared to other construction materials.
Mat 03: Responsible sourcing of materials
Concrete is primarily constituted of locally available
materials, all concrete products produced by Lafarge
Tarmac are BES 6001 accredited to a ‘Very Good’
standard.
Wst 02: Recycled Aggregates
Concrete is a versatile material whose design can
be readily adapted to enable the use or recycled,
secondary or replacement materials.
36
PEOPLE
PLANET
Safety and health
Our people
Community involvement
Climate change
Environmental stewardship
Resource efficiency
PERFORMANCE
SOLUTIONS
Economic value
Governance and ethics
Communication
Sustainable supply chain
Innovation and quality
Sustainable construction
37
OUR SUSTAINABILITY
STRATEGY
Sustainability is about securing long-term success for our business, customers and communities
by improving the environmental, social and economic performance of our products and solutions
through their life-cycle. This means considering not only the goods we purchase, our operations
and logistics but also the performance of our products in use and their reuse and recycling at the
end of their life. By doing this, we can understand and take action to minimise any negative aspects,
while maximising the many positive sustainability benefits our business and products bring.
Using this ‘whole life’ thinking we have engaged with our
stakeholders to develop our sustainability strategy. The
strategy defines the main sustainability themes and our
key priorities, those issues which are most important
to our business and our stakeholders. It sets out our
commitments to transform our business under four main
themes: People, Planet, Performance and Solutions.
FOUR THEMES
Twelve key priorities
Twelve commitments
Twelve 2020 milestones
Forty four other performance targets
Building on progress already made, we have set ambitious
2020 milestone targets for each of our key priorities.
These ambitious targets have been set to take us beyond
incremental improvement programmes to business
transforming solutions. Our 2020 milestones are
supported by a range of other performance targets.
This hierarchy helps make it easier to build understanding,
drive improvement and enables us to report progress in a
meaningful and measurable way.
38
INFORMATION
REFERENCES
1.
US Department of Energy – Radiant Cooling
www.energy.gov/energysaver/articles/radiant-cooling
2. The Mineral Product Association and The Concrete
Centre, Thermal Mass Explained (2012)
3. Marceau, M. and Vangeem, G. Solar Reflectance Values
for Concrete, Concrete International, August 2008
4. Health and Safety Executive - Thermal Comfort
www.hse.gov.uk/temperature/thermal/index.htm
5. Reinforced Concrete Council - Fabric Energy Storage:
Using concrete structures for enhanced energy
efficiency (2001)
6. Center for the Built Environment, University of
California - Façade and Perimeter Zone Performance
Field Study
www.cbe.berkeley.edu/research/facade_fieldstudy.htm
7.
39
Hacker, JN, Belcher, SE and Connell, RK (2005) Beating the Heat: Keeping UK buildings cool in a
warming climate. UKCIP Briefing Report. UKCIP, Oxford
8. The Government’s Energy Efficiency Best Practice
programme - Energy Consumption Guide 19: Energy
use in offices (2000).
9. From reactive to proactive: quantifying on-site
benefits of self-compacting concrete (SCC), D. Rich,
Loughborough
10. The Mineral Product Association and The Concrete
Centre - Concrete Floor Solutions for Passive and
Active Cooling (2012).
11. European Project ThermCo - Thermal Comfort in
Buildings with Low-Energy Cooling – Thermal Comfort
and Productivity (2009) - www.thermco.org
12. GreenSpec® – Thermal Mass (2013) –
www.greenspec.co.uk/thermal-mass.php
13. Center for the Built Environment, University of
California - Underfloor Air Technology –
http://cbe.berkeley.edu/underfloorair/glossary.htm#S
14. European Concrete Platform – Concrete for energyefficient buildings: The benefits of thermal mass (2007)
15. The Concrete Centre – Utilisation of Thermal Mass in
Non-Residential Buildings (2006).
16. Hamilton, S., Roth, K. and Brodrick, J., – Displacement
Ventilation – ASHRAE Journal, September 2004.
17. BSRIA – Ventilation effectiveness: How well do
ventilation systems work? (2011)
www.bsria.co.uk/news/ventilationeffectiveness-howwell-do-ventilation-systems-work
18. Hulme, M., Jenkins, G.J., Lu, X., Turnpenny, J.R.,
Mitchell, T.D., Jones, R.G., Lowe, J., Murphy, J.M.,
Hassell, D., Boorman, P., McDonald, R. & Hill, S. (2002)
Climate Change Scenarios for the United Kingdom: The
UKCIP02 Scientific Report, Tyndall Centre for Climate
Change Research, School of Environmental Sciences,
University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK. 120pp.
19. City of Melbourne – Council House 2: Our green
building
www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/sustainabilty/CH2/pages
CH2Ourgreenbuilding
20. Irish Concrete Federation – Thermal Mass and
Sustainable Building: Improving Energy Performance
and Occupant Comfort
22. CONSTRUCT Concrete Structures Group – National
Structural Concrete Specification 4th Edition (2010)
www.construct.org.uk
23. BS EN ISO 14040:2006, Environmental management
Life Cycle assessment. Principles and framework.
24. BS EN ISO 14044:2006, Environmental management.
Life Cycle assessment. Requirements and guidelines.
25. The Mineral Product Association and The Concrete
Centre on behalf of The Sustainable Concrete Forum
Concrete Indusry Sustainability Performance Report 4th Report: 2010 performance data.
26. GreenSpec® - Reducing the Impact of Concrete –
www.greenspec.co.uk/greening-of-concrete.php
27. Green Book Live
www.greenbooklive.com/search/scheme.jsp?id=153
28. The Carbon Trust – www.carbontrust.com
29. ISO 14001
www.bsigroup.co.uk/en/Assessmentand-Certification-services/Managementsystems/Standards-and-Schemes/ISO14001/?gclid=CO6WrLnSgrMCFcrItAodVhwAUA
21. European Concrete Platform – General guidelines for
using thermal mass in concrete buildings (2009)
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