Download Modern History of Syria Much of Syria`s history alternates between

Modern History of Syria
Much of Syria’s history alternates between periods of great success intellectually, politically, and
economically and periods of oppression, economic hardship and foreign occupation. Although Syria’s
history stretches back thousands of years, for the purpose of our committee, this section will focus on
Syria’s most recent history beginning in the nineteenth century.
Before World War I, the term Syria referred to the territory encompassing the land between the
Taurus and Sinai, the Mediterranean and the desert. This includes modern day Syria along with Palestine
and Lebanon. With the conclusion of the First World War, however, Syria’s borders took the shape of
what we know today. Furthermore, Syrians historically associated themselves along religious lines as
opposed to ethnic ties. Philip K. Hitti states in his book Syria: A Short History, “From time immemorial
Near Eastern society has been stratified in terms of belief rather than of race and within the religious
community the family rather than the territory has been the nucleus of organization. Hence in the
people’s minds religion and nationality were inextricably interwoven,” (Hitti 216). Based on this mindset,
the development of a shared Syrian nationality would depend upon several different factors and
eventually lead to the concept of Pan-Arabism.
At the turn of the nineteenth century, the Ottoman Empire still retained her grip on Syria
though nearing the end of her 400 year rule which would come to a halt in 1922. Throughout this time,
the Syrian people had lost their spirit of rebellion allowing the Ottoman Turks to retain power for such
an extended period. The Ottoman Empire was also notorious for enacting isolationist policies toward
herself and her subjects. This severely impacted Syria as she was cut off from the West while Europe
underwent the eighteenth-century enlightenment and the industrial revolution. Western influences
creped their way into Syria, however, through trade and commerce. Furthermore, a 1740 Franco-Turkish
treaty allowed French pilgrims to enter the holy land under the protection of the French flag which
would later give France precedence for claiming Syria as a protectorate. The British soon followed suit
and after the businessmen entered the land, missionaries, teachers, travelers and explorers made their
entrances as well. Aside from a faint western commercial presence, Syria remained in a medieval state
in all other aspects of life.
A sense of change began to brew in 1860, however, during the Lebanon wars when Europeans
set out to help those afflicted in the area. Suddenly the people of Syria and Lebanon were coming in
direct contact with western influence. Furthermore, the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 promoted
interaction with the rest of the world and the breakdown of physical and intellectual isolation.
Americans and the French founded universities in 1866 and 1874, and the local schools began to adapt
their curriculums to the new models. These modern ideas wreaked havoc on the old traditions and
beliefs of Islam and they also impacted the social order with the creation of a strong middle class. As a
result of Western influence and modernization in Syria and Lebanon, the region was considered to be
the most civilized province of the Ottoman Empire.
According to Hitti, the most influential ideas from the west were political and revolved around
self-determination, democracy and nationalism. Hitti further explains the emergence of nationalism in
Syria saying, “Though basically the modern concept of nationalism, in the sense of loyalty to a political
unit that transcends all other loyalties including the religious, is in conflict with the theory of Islam as a
religious fraternity, the idea developed from faint beginnings to become an all-penetrating element in
the life of Moslems from Morocco to Iraq,” (Hitti 235). These nationalistic stirrings would eventually play
an incredible role in the emergence of Pan-Arabism and the drawing of borders after World War I.
July 1908, presented a drastic turn of events that marked a period of great instability that would
last for many years. During this month, a group of Young Turks forced a coup against the long and
tyrannical ruler Abd-al-Hamid. The group favored a democratic state with an elected parliament. While
Abd-al-Hamid restored the parliament of 1876, ordered the abolition of espionage and censorship, and
the release of political prisoners, he had no intention of maintaining the reforms. However, his
interactions with reactionaries planning a counter-revolution caused Abd-al-Hamid to be replaced by his
brother Muhammad Rashad, and the new regime set out on a mission to centralize power and repress
all non-Turkish nationalism. This drove nationalists and radicals underground and tensions continued to
rise until the outbreak of war in 1914.
World War I marked a time of great difficulty for Syrians. Jamal Pasha came to power as
governor-general of Syria-Lebanon-Palestine and commander-in-chief of the fourth Ottoman army.
Pasha enacted a no-tolerance policy toward Arab nationalists. His tyrannical rule resulted in the
hangings of fourteen Muslims and Christians in Beirut and seven in Damascus. Furthermore, a blockade
enforced by the allies had devastating effects on food supply and diseases. An effort to starve the
people led to the deaths of about a hundred thousand in Lebanon. During this time of great hardship,
the Allied powers were negotiating the distribution of land among themselves. Furthermore, on
November 2, 1917, the Balfour Declaration was made and established a homeland for Jews in Palestine.
This declaration would lead to incredible tension between Syria and Israel and dominate Syrian foreign
policy for much of the twentieth century. Furthermore, the San Remo conference which took place in
April 1920 gave France the mandate over Syria and Lebanon and Great Britain the mandate over
Palestine and Iraq. At this point, Syria’s hope of becoming an independent nation was no longer in sight.
For many Syrians, France’s control over Syria felt harsher and more encompassing in their
everyday lives than Ottoman rule. The built up tension due to French repression eventually led to the
General revolt of 1925 which continued until autumn of 1927. During this time, however, the world was
on the brink of a Second World War and while World War II would be easier on Syrians, it still created its
complications for the state.
Syria served as a strategic location for troops during World War II, and the demands of the
militaries created jobs for Syrians in construction and infrastructure. However, on June 8, 1941, British
and Free French troops entered Syria and quelled German attempts to gain control of the territory.
Finally, on September 16, 1941, Syria’s independence was formally announced and the new government
proclaimed its status as an independent state eleven days later. According to Hitti, “No constitutional
life was established until August 1943 when a newly elected chamber chose the nationalist leader Shukri
al-Quwatli as president of the Republic,” (Hitti 248). Although Syria’s independence did not immediately
dispel French troops from the state, the admission of France and Great Britain to the United Nations on
April 12, 1945, implied international recognition of the termination of the mandate. Furthermore,
twenty days prior to France and Great Britain’s admission, Syria signed the pact of the newly created
Arab League.
The decade following Syria’s independence proved to be incredibly unstable. A series of three
coups occurred between March and December of 1949. The state also had to deal with problems
revolving around territory with Turkey, Jordan, and Lebanon. Syria further struggled with the newly
created Zionist state and suffered an embarrassing defeat in Palestine in 1949. All of this led to
increased isolationist policies that differed drastically from neighboring Lebanon and negatively
impacted Syria’s economy.
After several changes in leadership during this time, the first president of independent Syria, alQuwatli, was restored to power, and he maintained a policy of neutrality by rejecting foreign aid that
came with attached strings. Al-Quwatli also pursued the ideal of Arab unity through rapprochement
with Egypt and Saudi Arabia. In February 1958, Syria united with Egypt to form the United Arab
Republic, a direct step towards a Pan-Arab state. In September 1961, however, Syria and Egypt
separated and Syria was restored as the Syrian Arab Republic. In 1970, Hafiz al-Asad staged a bloodless
coup and brought stability to Syria for many years.
During the latter half of the twentieth century, Syria focused on the situation between Israel and
Palestine. Strong advocates against Zionism, Syria aided Palestine and the other Arab countries in the
1967 Arab-Israeli War. However, the sheer force of the Israeli Army led to Syria’s loss of the Golan
Heights, a strategic location in the area. Then, with the death of Hafiz al-Asad in June 2000, his son
Bashar al-Asad came to power and was confirmed as president in July 2000. Bashar al-Asad was elected
to his second term as president in May 2007.
Background of the Conflict
Like many other Middle Eastern and North African countries, Syria’s current conflict stems from
the self-immolation of the Tunisian street vendor Mohammed Bouazizi on December 17, 2010. Syrian
responses to the Arab Spring took off on March 15, 2011 in the southern province of Dar’a. The
protestors who poured into the streets of the small town were standing up against the torture of
students who had put up anti-government graffiti. The government’s response, which would shed like
on the Assad regime’s future handling of opposition, was brutal and heavy handed.
Bashar al-Assad alternated between violent crackdowns and appeals to protestors’ demands
during the first months of the conflict. He repealed the country’s State of Emergency; a law that
effectively suspended most constitution protection for citizens and that had been in place for decades.
However, only a few days after this concession, Assad sent military forces into quiet towns and cities as
security forces opened fire on demonstrators. Protestors have also called for the legalization of political
parties and the removal of corrupt local officials. Assad met these demands by approving new laws
permitting new political parties and liberalizing local and national elections. The greatest letdown for
protestors thus far, however, has been Assad’s reluctance to step down from power and this has been
the cause of a significant amount of violence and civilian deaths in the region.
Another source of tension throughout the conflict has been the struggle between ethnicities
within the state. Bashar al-Assad belongs to the Alawite sect, a minority in the country that comprises
the nation’s elite and the military. This minority constitutes approximately twelve percent of Syria’s
population while the Sunni majority that makes up a majority of the opposition, comprises about 75
percent of the population. Furthermore, Assad’s access to military and the loyalty of elites allowed him
to take such brutal measures against protestors. Military and elite loyalty only lasted so long and in the
past year many have begun defecting to neighboring states.
The severe violence continued without end as the Arab Spring transitioned into the summer
months of 2011. However, during this time, thousands of soldiers abandoned their loyalty to the military
and defected to launch attacks against the government. This turning point in the conflict brought the
United Nations to deem the situation in Syria as being on the verge of civil war. Furthermore, an
opposition government formed in exile, but their lack of coordination and internal divisions have kept
the government from being legitimized by international actors such as the UN, the EU, and the United
States.
As a reaction to Assad’s violence and intolerance toward protestors, many countries including
the United States have placed harsh economic sanctions on Syria. The Arab League also criticized
Assad’s handling of the situation by expelling the nation from the league. The UN General Assembly
voted to approve a resolution condemning President Assad’s actions. However, Russia and China kept
the assembly from taking greater action.
This past summer, the conflict reached new extremes and the death toll was said to be more
than 3,000 people in June. Also, many Syrians opposed to the Assad regime have rallied around a group
of armed opponents who call themselves the Free Syrian Army. By mid-summer, Syria was considered to
be in an all-out civil war with death tolls rising every day.
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