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Syria
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This article is about the modern nation of Syria. For other uses, see Syria
(disambiguation).
Syrian Arab Republic
Flag
Coat of arms
Anthem: Homat el Diyar
Guardians of the Land
Capital
(and largest city)
Official languages
Other common languages
Demonym
Government
Damascus
33°30′N 36°18′E33.5°N
36.3°E
Arabic
Aramaic, Armenian,
Kurdish, Turkmen
Syrian
Presidential single party
republic under Emergency
Law since 1963
- President
Bashar al-Assad
- Prime Minister
Muhammad Naji al-Otari
Independence
from France
- First declaration
September 19361
- Second declaration
1 January 1944
- Recognized
17 April 1946
Area
- Total
185,180 km2 (88th)
71,479 sq mi
- Water (%)
0.06
Population
- 2007 estimate
19,405,000 (54th)
- Density
103/km2 (101st)
267/sq mi
GDP (PPP)
2008 estimate
- Total
$94.408 billion[1]
- Per capita
$4,749[1]
GDP (nominal)
2008 estimate
- Total
$54.803 billion[1]
- Per capita
$2,756[1]
HDI (2007)
Currency
Syrian pound (SYP)
Time zone
EET (UTC+2)
- Summer (DST)
1
▲ 0.724 (medium) (109th)
EEST (UTC+3)
Drives on the
right
Internet TLD
.sy
Calling code
963
The Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence (1936), not ratified by
France.
Syria (Arabic: ‫ سوري ة‬sūriyya or ‫ سوري ا‬sūryā), officially the Syrian Arab Republic
(Arabic: ‫)ال سوري ة ال عرب ية ال جمهوري ة‬, is an Arab country in Southwest Asia,
bordering Lebanon and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Israel to the southwest, Jordan
to the south, Iraq to the east, and Turkey to the north.
The name Syria, formerly comprised the entire region of the Levant, while the modern
state encompasses the site of several ancient kingdoms and empires, including the Eblan
civilization of the third millennium BC. In the Islamic era, its capital city, Damascus, was
the seat of the Umayyad Empire and a provincial capital of the Mamluk Empire.
Damascus is widely regarded as one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the
world.[2]
Modern Syria was created as a French mandate and attained independence in April 1946,
as a parliamentary republic. The post-independence period was rocky, and a large number
of military coups and coup attempts shook the country in the period 1949-1970. Syria has
been under Emergency Law since 1962, effectively suspending most constitutional
protections for citizens. The country has been governed by the Baath Party since 1963,
although actual power is concentrated to the presidency and a narrow grouping of
military and political strongmen. Syria's current president is Bashar al-Assad, son of
Hafez al-Assad, who held office from 1970 until his death in 2000.[3][4] Syria has played a
major regional role, particularly through its central role in the Arab conflict with Israel,
which since 1967 has occupied the Golan Heights, and by active involvement in
Lebanese and Palestinian affairs.
The population is mainly Sunni Muslim, but with significant Alawi, Shia, Druze and
Christian minorities. Since the 1960s, Alawite military officers have tended to dominate
the country's politics. Ethnically, some 90% of the population is Arab, and the state is
ruled by the Baath Party according to Arab nationalist principles, while approximately
10% belong to the Kurdish,Armenian,Turkmen,Assyrian and Circassians minorities[5].
Contents
[hide]


1 Etymology
2 History
o 2.1 Eblan civilization
o 2.2 Antiquity and early Christian era
o 2.3 Islamic era
o 2.4 Ottoman era
o 2.5 French Mandate
o 2.6 Instability and foreign relations: independence to 1967
o 2.7 Six Day War and Aftermath
o 2.8 Baath Party rule under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000
o 2.9 21st century












3 Politics
o 3.1 Constitution and Government
o 3.2 Emergency Law
4 Administrative divisions
5 Geography
6 Syrian territorial problems
o 6.1 Turkish-Syrian dispute over Iskandaron (Hatay) Province
o 6.2 Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights
7 Economy
o 7.1 Foreign Trade
o 7.2 Transport
8 Demographics
o 8.1 Ethnic groups
o 8.2 Religion
o 8.3 Languages
o 8.4 Education in Syria
9 Military
10 Culture
o 10.1 Music of Syria
o 10.2 Syrian literature
o 10.3 Fairs and festivals
11 See also
12 References
13 Footnotes
14 External links
[edit] Etymology
Main article: Syria (etymology)
The name Syria derives from ancient Greek name for Syrians, Σύριοι Syrioi, which the
Greeks applied without distinction to various Assyrian people. Modern scholarship
confirms the Greek word traces back to the cognate Ἀσσυρία, Assyria, ultimately derived
from the Akkadian Aššur.[6]
The area designated by the word has changed over time. Classically, Syria lies at the
eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, between Egypt and Arabia to the south and Cilicia
to the north, stretching inland to include Mesopotamia, and having an uncertain border to
the northeast that Pliny the Elder describes as including, from west to east, Commagene,
Sophene, and Adiabene, "formerly known as Assyria". [7] By Pliny's time, however, this
larger Syria had been divided into a number of provinces under the Roman Empire (but
politically independent from each other): Judaea, later renamed Palaestina in AD 135 (the
region corresponding to modern day Israel, Jordan, and Palestinian Territories) in the
extreme southwest, Phoenicia corresponding to Lebanon, with Damascena to the inland
side of Phoenicia, Coele-Syria (or "Hollow Syria") south of the Eleutheris river, and
Mesopotamia.[8]
[edit] History
Main article: History of Syria
[edit] Eblan civilization
100 Syrian pound note with Philip the Arab.
Main articles: Ebla, Eblaite language, and Amorites
Around the excavated city of Ebla near Idlib city in norther Syria, discovered in 1975, a
great Semitic empire spread from the Red Sea north to Turkey and east to Mesopotamia
from 2500 to 2400 BC Ebla appears to have been founded around 3000 BC, and
gradually built its empire through trade with the cities of Sumer and Akkad, as well as
with peoples to the northwest.[9] Gifts from Pharaohs, found during excavations, confirm
Ebla's contact with Egypt. Scholars believe the language of Ebla to be among the oldest
known written Semitic languages, designated as Paleo-Canaanite.[9] However, more
recent classifications of the Eblaite language has shown that it was an East Semitic
language, closely related to the Akkadian language.[10] The Eblan civilization was likely
conquered by Sargon of Akkad around 2260 BC; the city was restored, as the nation of
the Amorites, a few centuries later, and flourished through the early second millennium
BC until conquered by the Hittites.[11]
[edit] Antiquity and early Christian era
Main articles: Phoenicia, Canaan, Aram Damascus, Seleucid Empire, and Syria (Roman
province)
Roman theatre in Bosra.
Philippus Araps, Roman Emperor
During the second millennium BC, Syria was occupied successively by Canaanites,
Phoenicians, and Arameans as part of the general disruptions and exchanges associated
with the Sea Peoples. The Phoenicians settled along the coast of Palestine, as well as in
the west (Lebanon), which was already known for its towering cedars. Egyptians,
Sumerians, Assyrians, Babylonians and Hittites variously occupied the strategic ground
of Syria during this period; the land between their various empires being marsh.
Eventually, the Persians took Syria as part of their hegemony of Southwest Asia; this
dominion was transferred to the Ancient Macedonians after Alexander the Great's
conquests and the Seleucid Empire. The capital of this Empire (founded in 312BC) was
situated at Antioch, modern day Antakya just inside the Turkish border. But the Seleucid
Empire was essentially just one long slow period of decline, and Pompey the Great
captured Antioch in 64BC, turning Syria into a Roman province. Thus control of this
region passed to the Romans and then the Byzantines.[9]
In the Roman Empire period, the city of Antioch was the third largest city in the empire
after Rome and Alexandria. With estimated population of 500,000 at its peak, Antioch
was one of the major centres of trade and industry in the ancient world. The population of
Syria during the heyday of the empire was probably not exceeded again until the 19th
century. Syria's large and prosperous population made Syria one of the most important of
the Roman provinces, particularly during the 2nd and 3rd centuries (A.D.). The Roman
Emperor Alexander Severus, who was emperor from 222 to 235, was Syrian. His cousin
Elagabalus, who was emperor from 218 to 222, was also Syrian and his family held
hereditary rights to the high priesthood of the sun god El-Gabal at Emesa (modern Homs)
in Syria. Another Roman emperor who was a Syrian was Marcus Julius Philippus,
emperor from 244 to 249.[12]
Syria is significant in the history of Christianity; Saul of Tarsus was converted on the
Road to Damascus, thereafter being known as the Apostle Paul, and established the first
organized Christian Church at Antioch in ancient Syria, from which he left on many of
his missionary journeys.(Acts 9:1-43 )
The famous desert city of Palmyra, whose ruins are now a United Nations World
Heritage site, grew large in the Syrian desert in the 1st and 2nd centuries (A.D.).
St.Simon (Samaan) church in Aleppo is considered to be one of the oldest remaining
churches in the world.
The Umayyad Mosque courtyard, Damascus.
[edit] Islamic era
Main articles: Umayyad Caliphate, Abbasid Caliphate, Ayyubid dynasty, Zengid dynasty,
and Hamdanid dynasty
By AD 640, Syria was conquered by the Rashidun army led by Khaled ibn al-Walid,
resulting in the area becoming part of the Islamic empire. In the mid-7th century, the
Umayyad dynasty, then rulers of the empire, placed the capital of the empire in
Damascus. Syria was divided into four districts: Damascus, Hims, Palestine and Jordan.
The Islamic empire stretched from Spain and Morocco to India and parts of Central Asia,
thus Syria prospered economically, being the capital of the empire. Early Ummayad
rulers such as Abd al-Malik and al-Walid constructed several splendid palaces and
mosques throughout Syria, particularly in Damascus, Aleppo and Hims. There was great
toleration of Christians in this era and several held governmental posts. The country's
power dramatically declined during later Ummayad rule; mainly due to the
totalitarianism and corruption spread among the empire's leaderships, conflict between its
general staff, and the successive revolutions by the oppressed and miserable groups. As
one Ummayad chieftain responded to a question about the reasons of the decline of their
empire: "Rather visiting what needed to be visited, we were more interested in the
pleasure and enjoyment of life; we oppressed our people until they gave up and sought
relief from us, [...] we trusted our ministers who favoured their own interests and kept
secrets from us, and we unhurriedly rewarded our soldiers that we lost their obedience to
our enemies.” Ummayad dynasty was then overthrown by the Abbasid dynasty in 750,
who moved the capital of empire to Baghdad. Arabic — made official under Ummayad
rule — became the dominant language, replacing Greek and Aramaic in the Abbasid era.
In 887, the Egypt-based Tulunids annexed Syria from the Abbasids, and were later
replaced by the Hamdanids originating in Aleppo founded by Sayf al-Daula.[13]
Sections of the coastline of Syria were briefly held by Frankish overlords during the
Crusades of the 12th century, and were known as the Crusader state of the Principality of
Antioch. The area was also threatened by Shiite extremists known as Assassins
(Hashshashin). In 1260, the Mongols arrived, led by Hulegu with an army 100,000 strong,
destroying cities and irrigation works. Aleppo fell in January 1260, and Damascus in
March, but then Hulegu needed to break off his attack to return to China to deal with a
succession dispute. The command of the remaining Mongol troops was placed under
Kitbugha, a Christian Mongol. A few months later, the Mamluks arrived with an army
from Egypt, and defeated the Mongols in the Battle of Ayn Jalut, in Galilee. The Mamluk
leader, Baybars, made his capitals in Cairo and Damascus, linked by a mail service that
traveled by both horses and carrier pigeons. When Baybars died, his successor was
overthrown, and power was taken by a Turk named Qalawun. In the meantime, an emir
named Sunqur al-Ashqar had tried to declare himself ruler of Damascus, but he was
defeated by Qalawun on 21 June 1280, and fled to northern Syria. Al-Ashqar, who had
married a Mongol woman, appealed for help from the Mongols, and in 1281, they arrived
with an army of 50,000 Mongols, and 30,000 Armenian, Georgian, and Turkish
auxiliaries, along with Al-Ashqar's rebel force. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate took the
city, but Qalawun arrived with a Mamluk force, persuaded Al-Ashqar to switch sides and
join him, and they fought against the Mongols on 29 October 1281, in the Second Battle
of Homs, a close battle which resulted in the death of the majority of the combatants, but
was finally won by the Mamluks.[14]
Saladin's grave in Damascus.
In 1400, Timur Lenk, or Tamerlane, invaded Syria, sacked Aleppo and captured
Damascus after defeating the Mamluk army. The city's inhabitants were massacred,
except for the artisans, who were deported to Samarkand.[15][16] It was during the
conquests of Timur that the indigenous Christian population of Syria began to suffer
under greater persecutions.
By the end of the 15th century, the discovery of a sea route from Europe to the Far East
ended the need for an overland trade route through Syria. Shattered by the Mongols,
Syria was easily absorbed into the Ottoman Empire from the 16th through 20th centuries,
and found itself largely apart from, and ignored by, world affairs. see also Ottoman Syria
[edit] Ottoman era
Main article: Ottoman Syria
German troups in Aleppo, summer of 1917
Fighting on the side of Germany during World War I, plans by the Entente powers to
dissolve this great Ottoman territory could now begin. Two allied diplomats (Frenchman
François Georges-Picot and Briton Mark Sykes) secretly agreed, long before the end of
the war, how to split the Ottoman Empire into several zones of influence. The SykesPicot Agreement of 1916 set the fate of modern Southwest Asia for the coming century;
providing France with the northern zone (Syria, with later the upcoming Lebanon), and
the United Kingdom with the southern one (Jordan, Iraq and later, after renegotiations in
1917, Palestine - 'to secure daily transportation of troops from Haifa to Baghdad' agreement n° 7). The two territories were only separated with a straight border line from
Jordan to Iran. But early discoveries of oil in the region of Mosul just before to end of the
war led to yet another negotiation with France in 1918 to cede this region to 'Zone B', or
the British zone of influence. The borders between the 'Zone A' and 'Zone B' have not
changed from 1918 to this date. Since 1920, the two sides have been recognized
internationally under mandate of the League of Nations by the two dominant countries;
France and the United Kingdom.[17]
[edit] French Mandate
Main article: French Mandate of Syria
The States of the French Mandate.
In 1920, an independent Arab Kingdom of Syria was established under Faisal I of the
Hashemite family, who later became the King of Iraq. However, his rule over Syria
ended after only a few months, following the clash between his Syrian Arab forces and
regular French forces at the Battle of Maysalun. French troops occupied Syria later that
year after the San Remo conference proposed that the League of Nations put Syria under
a French mandate.[18] Syria and France negotiated a treaty of independence in September
1936, and Hashim al-Atassi, who was Prime Minister under King Faisal's brief reign, was
the first president to be elected under a new constitution, effectively the first incarnation
of the modern republic of Syria. However, the treaty never came into force because the
French Legislature refused to ratify it. With the fall of France in 1940 during World War
II, Syria came under the control of the Vichy Government until the British and Free
French occupied the country in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in
1941 but it wasn't until 1 January 1944 that it was recognised as an independent republic.
Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the
French to evacuate their troops in April 1946, leaving the country in the hands of a
republican government that had been formed during the mandate.[19]
[edit] Instability and foreign relations: independence to 1967
Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian
politics from independence through the late 1960s were marked by upheaval. Between
1946 and 1956, Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions. In
1948, Syria was involved in the Arab-Israeli War, aligning with the other local Arab
nations who were attempting to prevent the establishment of Israel.[20] The Syrian army
was pressed out of most of the Israel area, but fortified their strongholds on the Golan
Heights and managed to keep their old borders and some additional territory (this was
converted into "supposed" demilitarized zones under UN supervision, but then gradually
lost to Israel in the inter-war years; the status of these territories have proved a stumblingblock for Syrian-Israeli negotiations).
president Adib Shishakli.
The humiliating defeat suffered by the army was one of several trigger factors for Col.
Husni al-Za'im's seizure of power in 1949, in what has been described as the first military
coup d'état of the Arab world.[20] since the start of the Second World War. This was soon
followed by a new coup, by Col. Sami al-Hinnawi, who was then himself quickly
deposed by Col. Adib Shishakli, all within the same year.[20] After exercising influence
behind the scenes for some time, dominating the ravaged parliamentary scene, Shishakli
launched a second coup in 1951, entrenching his rule and eventually abolishing
multipartyism altogether. Only when president Shishakli was himself overthrown in a
1954 coup, was the parliamentary system restored, but it was fundamentally undermined
by continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military.[20]
By this time, civilian politics had been largely gutted of meaning, and power was
increasingly concentrated in the military and security establishment, which had now
proven itself to be the only force capable of seizing and - perhaps - keeping power.[20]
Parliamentary institutions remained weak and ineffectual, dominated by competing
parties representing the landowning elites and various Sunni urban notables, while
economy and politics were mismanaged, and little done to better the role of Syria's
peasant majority. This, as well as the influence of Nasserism and other anti-colonial
ideologies, created fertile ground for various Arab nationalist, Syrian nationalist and
socialist movements, who represented disaffected elements of society, notably including
the religious minorities, and demanded radical reform.[20]
president Shukri al-Quwatli .
During the Suez Crisis of 1956, after the invasion of the Sinai Peninsula by Israeli troops,
and the intervention of British and French troops, martial law was declared in Syria. The
November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's acceptance into
the Baghdad Pact. In early 1957 Iraq advised Egypt and Syria against a conceivable
takeover of Jordan.[21]
In November 1956 Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for
Communist influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other
military equipment being sent to Syria.[20] With this increase in the strength of Syrian
military technology worried Turkey, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to
retake Iskenderun, a matter of dispute between Syria and Turkey. On the other hand,
Syria and the U.S.S.R. accused Turkey of massing its troops at the Syrian border. During
this standoff, Communists gained more control over the Syrian government and military.
Only heated debates in the United Nations (of which Syria was an original member)
lessened the threat of war.[22]
Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian
and Egyptian policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President Gamal Abdal Nasser's
leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt.[20]
On 1 February 1958, Syrian president Shukri al-Quwatli and Nasser announced the
merging of the two countries, creating the United Arab Republic, and all Syrian political
parties, as well as the Communists therein, ceased overt activities.[19]
The union was not a success, however.[20] Following a military coup on 28 September
1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability
characterized the next 18 months, with various coups culminating on 8 March 1963, in
the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers of the National Council of the
Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed
control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by
members of the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Baath Party), which had been active in
Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by
Baath members.[19][20]
The Baath takeover in Syria followed a Baath coup in Iraq the previous month. The new
Syrian Government explored the possibility of federation with Egypt and with Baathcontrolled Iraq.[20] An agreement was concluded in Cairo on 17 April 1963, for a
referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements
among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize.
Thereafter, the Baath government in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity.
These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Baath government in Iraq was
overthrown. In May 1964, President Amin Hafiz of the NCRC promulgated a provisional
constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed
legislature composed of representatives of mass organizations—labour, peasant, and
professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a
cabinet. On 23 February 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, intraparty coup, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the
provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Baath government on 1
March.[20] The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of Baath Party principles.[20]
[edit] Six Day War and Aftermath
Main article: Six Day War
When Nasser closed the Gulf of Aqaba to Eilat-bound ships, the Baath government
supported the Egyptian leader, amassed troops in the strategic Golan Heights to defend
itself against Israeli shellings into Syria. According to the UN office in Jerusalem from
1955 until 1967 65 of the 69 border flare-ups between Syria and Israel were initiated by
Israelis.[23]The New York Times reported in 1997 that “Moshe Dayan, the celebrated
commander who, a Defense Minister in 1967, gave the order to conquer the Golan…[said]
many of the firefights with the Syrians were deliberately provoked by Israel, and the
kibbutz residents who pressed the government to take the Golan Heights did so less for
security than for their farmland.”[24] In May 1967, Hafez al-Assad, then Syria's Defense
Minister declared: "Our forces are now entirely ready not only to repulse the aggression,
but to initiate the act of liberation itself, and to explode the Zionist presence in the Arab
homeland. The Syrian Army, with its finger on the trigger, is united... I, as a military man,
believe that the time has come to enter into a battle of annihilation."[25] After Israel
launched a preemptive strike on Egypt to begin the June 1967 war, Syria joined the battle
against Israel as well. In the final days of the war, after having captured the Sinai
Peninsula and Gaza Strip from Egypt, as well as the West Bank and eastern Jerusalem
from Jordan, Israel turned its attention to Syria, capturing the entire Golan Heights in
under 48 hours.[26]
Conflict developed between an extremist military wing and a more moderate civilian
wing of the Baath Party. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the PLO during the
"Black September" hostilities with Jordan reflected this political disagreement within the
ruling Baath leadership.[27] By 13 November 1970, Minister of Defense Hafez al-Assad
was solidly established as the strongman of the government, when he effected a bloodless
military coup ("The Corrective Movement").[28]
[edit] Baath Party rule under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000
See also: Baath Party and Hafez al-Assad
Hafez al-Assad, former president of Syria.
Upon assuming power, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational
infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional
Command of Assad's Arab Baath Socialist Party nominated a 173-member legislature,
the People's Council, in which the Baath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were
divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. In March 1971, the party
held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by
Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as President
for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed
the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Baath Party, and elections
were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a
new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary
elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962.[19]
On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt began the Yom Kippur War by staging a surprise
attack against Israeli forces occupying the Syrian Golan Heights and the Egyptian Sinai
Peninsula. After early successes, the Israeli military reversed the initial Syrian gains,
pushing the Syrian army out of the Golan and invaded into Syrian territory beyond the
1967 border. As a result, Israel continued to occupy the Golan Heights as part of the
Israeli-occupied territories.[29]
In early 1976, the Lebanese civil war was going poorly for the Maronite Christians. Syria
sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent them from being overrun, but soon became
embroiled in the Lebanese Civil War, beginning the 30 year Syrian occupation of
Lebanon. Many crimes in Lebanon were associated to the Syrians' forces and
intelligences (among others, the assassinations of Kamal Jumblat and Bachir Gemayel are
usually connected to Syria or Syrian backed groups). Over the following 15 years of civil
war, Syria fought both for control over Lebanon, and as an attempt to undermine Israel in
southern Lebanon, through extensive use of Lebanese allies as proxy fighters. Many see
the Syrian Army's presence in Lebanon as an occupation, especially following the end of
the civil war in 1990, after the Syrian-sponsored Taif Agreement. Syria then remained in
Lebanon until 2005, exerting a heavy-handed influence over Lebanese politics, that was
deeply resented by many.[citation needed]
About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the war ended to find jobs in
the reconstruction of the country.[30] Syrian workers were preferred over Palestinian and
Lebanese workers because they could be paid lower wages, but some have argued that
the Syrian government's encouragement of citizens entering its small and militarily
dominated neighbor in search of work, was in fact an attempt at Syrian colonization of
Lebanon. Now, the economies of Syria and Lebanon are completely interdependent. In
1994, under pressure from Damascus, the Lebanese government controversially granted
citizenship to over 200,000 Syrian residents in the country.[31] (For more on these issues,
see Demographics of Lebanon)
The authoritarian government was not without its critics, though open dissent was
repressed. A serious challenge arose in the late 1970s, however, from fundamentalist
Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Baath program and object to
rule by the Alawis, whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in
1982, the arch-conservative Muslim Brotherhood led an armed insurgency against the
government. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982,
the government crushed the fundamentalist opposition centered in the city of Hama,
leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing between 10.000 and 25.000 of
dead and wounded, mostly civilians (see Hama massacre). Since then, public
manifestations of anti-government activity have been very limited.[19]
Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam
Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other Arab states and
with the Western world. Syria participated in the multilateral Southwest Asia Peace
Conference in Madrid in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-toface negotiations with Israel. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further
direct Syrian-Israeli talks since President Hafiz al-Assad's meeting with then President
Bill Clinton in Geneva in March 2000.[32]
[edit] 21st century
See also: Bashar al-Assad
President Bashar al-Assad of Syria and his wife Asma al-Assad
Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following alAssad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory
minimum age of the President from 40 to 34. This allowed his son, Bashar al-Assad, to
become legally eligible for nomination by the ruling Baath party. On 10 July 2000,
Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed,
garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian Government statistics. He was
inaugurated into office on 17 July 2000 for a 7-year term.[19] He is married to Asma alAssad, an activist herself and advocate of reforms.[33]
Under Bashar al-Assad hundreds of political prisoners were released and a steps were
taken towards easing media restrictions[dubious – discuss]. However, Bashar al-Assad has
made it clear that his priority is economic rather than political reform.[34]
On 5 October 2003, Israel bombed a site near Damascus, charging it was a terrorist
training facility for members of Islamic Jihad. The raid was in retaliation for the bombing
of a restaurant in the Israeli town of Haifa that killed 19. Islamic Jihad said the camp was
not in use; Syria said the attack was on a civilian area.[35]
The German Chancellor said that the attack "cannot be accepted" and the French Foreign
Ministry said "The Israeli operation… constituted an unacceptable violation of
international law and sovereignty rules." The Spanish UN Ambassador Inocencio Arias
called it an attack of "extreme gravity" and "a clear violation of international law."
However, the United States moved closer to imposing sanctions on Syria, following the
adoption of the Syria Accountability Act by the House of Representatives International
Relations committee.[36] Hamas, Islamic Jihad and Hezbollah, all included in what the EU
and the U.S view as terrorist groups, all take refuge and enjoy strong relationships with
the Syrian government.
Syrian Kurds protest in Brussels, Geneva, in Germany at the US and UK embassies and
in Turkey, against violence in north-east Syria starting Friday, 12 March, and reportedly
extending over the weekend resulting in several deaths, according to reports. The Kurds
allege the Syrian government encouraged and armed the attackers. Signs of rioting were
seen in the towns of Qameshli and Hassakeh.[37]
On 6 September 2007, Israeli jet fighters carried out an air strike in the Deir ez-Zor
Governorate, known as Operation Orchard, on a target claimed to be a nuclear reactor
under construction by North Korean technicians. Reportedly a number of the technicians
were killed.[38]
In April, 2008, President Assad told a Qatari newspaper that Syria and Israel had been
discussing a peace treaty for a year, with Turkey acting as a mediator. This was
confirmed in May, 2008, by a spokesman for Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Olmert. The
status of the Golan Heights, a major obstacle to a peace treaty, is being discussed.
President Assad was quoted in the The Guardian as telling the Qatari paper:
...there would be no direct negotiations with Israel until a new US president takes
office. The US was the only party qualified to sponsor any direct talks, [President
Assad] told the paper, but added that the Bush administration "does not have the
vision or will for the peace process. It does not have anything."[39]
[edit] Politics
Syria
This article is part of the series:
Politics and government of
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Main article: Politics of Syria
Syria is a republic which has the following executive branches of government: the
president, two vice presidents, prime minister, Council of Ministers (cabinet). Syria's
legislative branch is the unicameral People's Council.
Syria's judicial branches include the Supreme Constitutional Court, the High Judicial
Council, the Court of Cassation, and the State Security Courts. Islamic jurisprudence is a
main source of legislation and Syria's judicial system has elements of Ottoman, French,
and Islamic laws. Syria has three levels of courts: courts of first instance, courts of
appeals, and the constitutional court, the highest tribunal. Religious courts handle
questions of personal and family law.[4]
Political parties: the Arab Socialist Resurrection Party (Baath Party) is the dominant party,
Arab Socialist Movement, Arab Socialist Union, Syrian Communist Party, Democratic
Socialist Unionist Party, and around 15 minor tolerated political parties and 14 existent
Kurdish political parties which are, in fact, illegal.[40]
Suffrage: Universal at the age of 18.[4]
[edit] Constitution and Government
Syria's constitution was adopted 13 March 1971.[41] It vests the Baath Party with
leadership functions in the state and society. The president is approved by referendum for
a 7-year term in principle. However, in practise people must elect the leader of the Baath
Pary as president. The president also serves as Secretary General of the Baath Party and
leader of the National Progressive Front. The National Progressive Front is a coalition of
10 political parties authorized by the government.[41]
The constitution requires the president to be a Muslim,[41] but does not make Islam the
state religion. The constitution gives the president the right to appoint ministers, to
declare war and state of emergency, to issue laws (which, except in the case of
emergency, require ratification by the People's Council), to declare amnesty, to amend
the constitution, and to appoint civil servants and military personnel.[4][41] The president
of Syria is President Al-Assad since the year 2000.
[edit] Emergency Law
Since 1963 the Emergency Law has been in effect, effectively suspending most
constitutional protections for Syrians. Syrian governments have justified the state of
emergency in the light of the continuing war with Israel. Syrian citizens approve the
President in a referendum. Syria does not hold multi-party elections for the legislature.[4]
[edit] Administrative divisions
Damascus
Rif Dimashq
Quneitra
Daraa
As-Suwayda
Homs
Tartus
Latakia
Hama
Idlib
Aleppo
Ar-Raqqah
Deir ez-Zor
Al-Hasakah
Main articles: Governorates of Syria and Districts of Syria
Further information: List of cities in Syria
Syria is divided into fourteen governorates, or muhafazat (singular: muhafazah). The
governorates are divided into a total of sixty districts, or manatiq (sing. mintaqah), which
are further divided into sub-districts, or nawahi (sing. nahiya).
A governor, whose appointment is proposed by the minister of the interior, approved by
the cabinet, and announced by executive decree, heads each governorate. The governor is
assisted by an elected provincial council. Most of the Quneitra Governorate has been
unilaterally annexed by Israel as the Golan Heights territory.
The capital Damascus is the largest city in Syria, and the metropolitan area is a
governorate on its own. Aleppo (population 1,671,673) in northern Syria, the second
largest city, is also a major industrial, urban and cultural center. Aleppo's old town has
been designated by the UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. Latakia (population 554,000)
along with Tartus are Syria's main ports on the Mediterranean sea. Other major cities
include Homs (population 1,033,000) in central Syria and Deir ez-Zor (population
230.000) on the Euphrates river in eastern Syria.
[edit] Geography
Main article: Geography of Syria
Mashkita Lake
Burjeslam, a well known beach just north of Latakia.
Syria consists mostly of arid plateau, although the northwest part of the country bordering
the Mediterranean is fairly green. The Northeast of the country "Al Jazira" and the South
"Hawran" are important agricultural areas.[42] The Euphrates, Syria's most important river,
crosses the country in the east. It is considered to be one of the fifteen states that
comprise the so-called "Cradle of Civilization".[43]
The climate in Syria is dry and hot, and winters are mild. Because of the country's
elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during winter.[42] Petroleum in commercial
quantities was first discovered in the northeast in 1956. The most important oil fields are
those of Suwaydiyah, Qaratshui, Rumayian, and Tayyem, near Dayr az–Zawr. The fields
are a natural extension of the Iraqi fields of Mosul and Kirkuk. Petroleum became Syria's
leading natural resource and chief export after 1974. Natural gas was discovered at the
field of Jbessa in 1940.[19]
[edit] Syrian territorial problems
[edit] Turkish-Syrian dispute over Iskandaron (Hatay) Province
Main article: Hatay Province
There is a deep rooted disagreement between Turkey and Syria over Hatay Province.
At present Syrians hold the view that this land is historically Syrian and was illegally
ceded in the late 1930s to Turkey by France - the mandatory occupying power of Syria
(between 1920 and 1946). The Turks remember Syria as a former Ottoman Turkish
vilayet with embitterment. Contemporary Syria and Syrians still consider this land as
integral Syrian territory. 60 000 christian and alawite Syrians fled Iskandaron deeper into
Syria after the area was ceded to Turkey in 1938.[44]Syrians call this land Liwaaa
aliskenderuna rather than the Turkish name of Hatay.
[edit] Israeli occupation of the Golan Heights
Main article: Golan Heights
Golan Heights
The Golan Heights is a strategic plateau and mountainous region in southwestern Syria. It
comprises 1,850 square kilometres (714 sq mi) and includes mountains reaching an
altitude of 2,880 metres (9,449 ft) above sea level. The heights dominate the plains below.
The Jordan River, Lake Tiberias and the Hula Valley border the region on the west. To
the east is the Raqqad Valley and the south is Yarmok River and valley. The northern
boundary of the region is the mountain Jabal al-Sheikh (Mount Hermon), one of the
highest in the Southwest Asia. An agreement to establish a demilitarized zone between
Israel and Syria was signed on 20 July 1949,[45] but border clashes continued. Israel
captured the Golan Heights from Syria in the 1967 Six Day War. Between 80,000 and
109,000 of the inhabitants fled, mostly Druze and Circassians.[46][47] In 1973, Syria tried
to regain control of the Golan Heights in a surprise attack on Yom Kippur, the holiest day
of the Jewish year. Despite initial Syrian advances and heavy Israeli losses, the Golan
Heights remained in Israeli hands after a successful Israeli counter attack. Syria and Israel
signed an armistice agreement in 1974, and a United Nations observer force was
stationed there. Israel unilaterally annexed the Golan Heights in 1981, although the
Syrian government continues to demand the return of this territory, possibly in the
context of a peace treaty.[48]
After the Six-Day War, a population of 20,000 Syrians remained in the Golan Heights,
most of them Druze. Since 2005, Israel has allowed Druze apple farmers in the Golan to
sell their produce to Syria. In 2006, the export total reached 8,000 tons of apples.[49]
Syrian residents of the Golan are also permitted to study at universities in Syria, where
they are entitled to free tuition, books and lodging.[50]
[edit] Economy
Main article: Economy of Syria
Syria is a middle-income country, with an economy based on agriculture, oil, industry,
and tourism. However, Syria's economy faces serious problems and challenges and
impediments to growth, including: a large and poorly performing public sector; declining
rates of oil production; widening non-oil deficit; wide scale corruption; weak financial
and capital markets; and high rates of unemployment tied to a high population growth
rate.[19]
As a result of an inefficient and corrupt centrally planned economy, Syria has low rates of
investment, and low levels of industrial and agricultural productivity. Its GDP growth
rate was approximately 2.9% in 2005, according to IMF statistics. The two main pillars
of the Syrian economy have been agriculture and oil. Agriculture, for instance, accounts
for 25% of GDP and employs 42% of the total labor force. The government hopes to
attract new investment in the tourism, natural gas, and service sectors to diversify its
economy and reduce its dependence on oil and agriculture. The government has begun to
institute economic reforms aimed at liberalizing most markets, but reform thus far has
been slow and ad hoc. For ideological reasons, privatization of government enterprises is
explicitly rejected. Therefore major sectors of the economy including refining, ports
operation, air transportation, power generation, and water distribution, remain firmly
controlled by the government.[19]
Syria has produced heavy-grade oil from fields located in the northeast since the late
1960s. In the early 1980s, light-grade, low-sulphur oil was discovered near Dayr al-Zur in
eastern Syria. Syria's rate of oil production has been decreasing steadily, from a peak
close to 600,000 barrels per day (95,000 m³/d) (bpd) in 1995 down to approximately
425,000 bbl/d (67,600 m³/d) in 2005. Experts generally agree that Syria will become a net
importer of petroleum not later than 2012. Syria exported roughly 200,000 bbl/d
(32,000 m³/d) in 2005, and oil still accounts for a majority of the country's export income.
Syria also produces 22 million cubic meters of gas per day, with estimated reserves
around 8.5 trillion cubic feet (240 km3). While the government has begun to work with
international energy companies in the hopes of eventually becoming a gas exporter, all
gas currently produced is consumed domestically.[19]
Some basic commodities, such as diesel, continue to be heavily subsidized, and social
services are provided for nominal charges. The subsidies are becoming harder to sustain
as the gap between consumption and production continues to increase. Syria has a
population of approximately 19 million people, and Syrian Government figures place the
population growth rate at 2.45%, with 75% of the population under the age of 35 and
more than 40% under the age of 15. Approximately 200,000 people enter the labor
market every year. According to Syrian Government statistics, the unemployment rate is
7.5%, however, more accurate independent sources place it closer to 20%. Government
and public sector employees constitute over one quarter of the total labor force and are
paid very low salaries and wages. Government officials acknowledge that the economy is
not growing at a pace sufficient to create enough new jobs annually to match population
growth. The UNDP announced in 2005 that 30% of the Syrian population lives in poverty
and 11.4% live below the subsistence level.[19]
[edit] Foreign Trade
Given the policies adopted from the 1960s through the late 1980s, which included
nationalization of companies and private assets, Syria failed to join an increasingly
interconnected global economy. Syria withdrew from the General Agreement on Tariffs
and Trade (GATT) in 1951 because of Israel's accession. It is not a member of the World
Trade Organization (WTO), although it submitted a request to begin the accession
process in 2001. Syria is developing regional free trade agreements. As of 1 January 2005,
the Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA) came into effect and customs duties were
eliminated between Syria and all other members of GAFTA. In addition, Syria has signed
a free trade agreement with Turkey, which came into force in January 2007, and initialed
an Association Agreement with the European Union, which has yet to be signed.
Although Syria claims a recent boom in non-oil exports, its trade numbers are notoriously
inaccurate and out-of-date. Syria's main exports include crude oil, refined products, raw
cotton, clothing, fruits, and grains. The bulk of Syrian imports are raw materials essential
for industry, vehicles, agricultural equipment, and heavy machinery. Earnings from oil
exports as well as remittances from Syrian workers are the government's most important
sources of foreign exchange.[19]
[edit] Transport
Main article: Transportation in Syria
Syria has three principal airports - Damascus, Aleppo and Lattakia which serve as hubs
for Syrian Air and are also served by a variety of foreign carriers.[51]
The majority of Syrian cargo is carried by Chemins de Fer Syriens (CFS) (the Syrian
Railway company) and TCDD (the Turkish counterpart).
For a relatively under developed country Syria's railway infrastructure is of a high quality
with many high speed services.[52]
[edit] Demographics
Main article: Demographics of Syria
Most people live in the Euphrates River valley and along the coastal plain, a fertile strip
between the coastal mountains and the desert. Overall population density in Syria is about
99 per km² (258 per square mile). According to the World Refugee Survey 2008,
published by the U.S. Committee for Refugees and Immigrants, Syria hosted a population
of refugees and asylum seekers number approximately 1,852,300. The vast majority of
this population was from Iraq (1,300,000), but sizeable populations from the former
British Mandate of Palestine (543,400) and Somalia (5,200) also lived in the country.[53]
Education is free and compulsory from ages 6 to 11. Schooling consists of 6 years of
primary education followed by a 3-year general or vocational training period and a 3-year
academic or vocational program. The second 3-year period of academic training is
required for university admission. Total enrollment at post-secondary schools is over
150,000. The literacy rate of Syrians aged 15 and older is 86% for males and 73.6% for
females.
[edit] Ethnic groups
Three Syrian men, 1873.
Modern-day Syrians are an overall indigenous Levantine people. Genetically, they are
most closely related to their immediate Levantine neighbours.[54] It was after the arrival
of Arabian Muslims and their conquest of Syria that the vast majority of the indigenous
inhabitants were culturally and linguistically Arabized, and in most cases, also religiously
Islamized. As a result of that Arabization, but independant of Islamization since many
remained Christian, Syrians today are commonly referred to as an "Arab" people, by
virtue of their current vernacular language, and bonds to Arab culture and history. As is
the case with other now linguistically and culturally Arabized peoples, such as Lebanese,
Egyptians, Palestinians, Moroccans, etc, Syrians also descend largely from a blend of the
various groups indigenous to their country, in the case of Syria, most of whom were of
the Christian faith and speakers of Aramaic; a language introduced by an earlier conquest.
Syrians today, whether Muslim, Christian or other, are therefore a thoroughly Arabized
people, and it is these Syrian Arabs, together with some 400,000 UNRWA Palestinian
Arabs (Muslim, Christian or other) which make up over 90% of the population.[55]
Syria also hosts non-Arabized ethnic minorities. The largest of these groups, the Kurds,
constitute about 9% of the population (1,800,000 people).[56] Most Kurds reside in the
northeastern corner of Syria and many still speak the Kurdish language. Sizeable Kurdish
communities live in most major Syrian cities as well. The majority of Syrian Turkmen
live in Aleppo, Damascus and Latakia. Assyrian/Syriacs Christians are a significant
minority that live in the north and northeast (al-Qamishli, al-Hasakah) and number
around 700,000 in Syria.[57] Although their numbers have been boosted by many Iraqi
refugees since the Iraq War.[58] The Assyrian Democratic Organization, is also banned in
Syria by the current Syrian government. Armenians number approximately 190,000.
Syria holds the 7th largest Armenian population in the world. In addition, approximately
1,300,000 Iraqi refugees were estimated to live in Syria in 2007. Roughly 50 percent of
these refugees were Sunni Arab Muslims, 24 percent Shi'a Arab Muslim, and 20 percent
Christian.[53] During the Mandate years, there was a significant French population, many
of whom left Syria after the end of French rule. As of 1987, approximately 100,000
Circassians lived in Syria.[59]
The Americas have long been a destination for Arab migration, with Syrians arriving in
some countries at least as early as the 19th century. The largest concentration of Syrians
outside the Middle East is in Brazil, which has over 9 million Brazilians of Arab
ancestry.[60] The majority of the 3.5 million Arab Argentines are from either Lebanese or
Syrian background.[61]
[edit] Religion
Main article: Religion in Syria
St Ananias Church on the Biblical Street Called Straight in Old Damascus.
See also: Christianity in Syria, Islam in Syria, and Freedom of religion in Syria
Hama, Syria - a minaret of Al Nouri mosque.
Ommayyad Masjed
Muslim 87% (Sunnis account for 74% of the total,[62] while the remaining 13% are
Alawite, Twelvers, and Ismailis combined[62]), Druze 3%,[62] Christian 10%[62] (majority
Greek Orthodox, other Christian include Greek Catholic, Protestants and other various
denominations).
Armenian Church in Kasab, near Latakia
Shrine of Zaynab bint Ali at Damascus, Syria.
Christians, a sizable number of which are also found among Syrian Palestinians, are
divided into several groups. Chalcedonian Antiochian Orthodox ("Greek Orthodox";
Arabic: ‫االرث وذك س ال روم‬, ar-Rūmu 'l-Urṯūḏuks) make up 50–55% of the Christian
population; the Catholics (Melkite, Armenian Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Maronite,
Chaldean and Latin) make up 18%; the Syriac Orthodox Church, the Armenian Apostolic
Church, the Nestorian Assyrians and several smaller Christian denominations account for
the remainder. Many Christian monasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians belong to a
high socio-economic class.[63].
Syria also has a tiny population of Jews, confined mainly to Damascus, a remnant of a
formerly 40,000 strong community. After the 1947 UN Partition plan, pogroms against
the Jews erupted in Damascus and Aleppo, and Jewish property was confiscated or
burned. When the State of Israel was established in 1948, many Syrian Jews sought
refuge there. Of the remaining 5,000 Jews, 4,000 left in the 1990s, in the wake of an
agreement with the United States. As of 2007, the Jewish community has dwindled to
less than 70 Jews, most of them elderly.[64]
Mountains of Syria near St. George's Monastery
[edit] Languages
Arabic is the official and most widely spoken language. Kurdish is widely spoken in the
Kurdish regions of Syria. Many educated Syrians also speak English and French.
Armenian and Turkmen are spoken among the Armenian and Turkmen minorities.
Aramaic, the lingua franca of the region before the advent of Islam and Arabic, is spoken
among certain ethnic groups: as Syriac, it is used as the liturgical language of various
Syriac denominations; modern Aramaic (particularly, Turoyo language and Assyrian
Neo-Aramaic) is spoken in Al-Jazira region. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is
still spoken in the village of Ma`loula, and two neighbouring villages, 35 miles (56 km)
northeast of Damascus.
[edit] Education in Syria
Main article: Education in Syria
The strong educational system in Syria was based on the old French system. Education is
free in all public schools and obligatory up to the 9th grade. Schools are divided into
three levels:



1st to 4th grade: Basic Education Level I (Arabic: ‫ح ل قة أ سا سي ت ع ل يم‬
‫)أول ى‬
5th to 9th grade: Basic Education Level II (Arabic: ‫ح ل قة أ سا سي ت ع ل يم‬
‫)ث ان ية‬
10th to 12th grade: Secondary Education (Arabic: ‫)ال ثان وي ال ت ع ل يم‬, which is
the equivalent of High School.
Final exams of the 9th grade are carried out nationally at the same time. The result of
these exams determines if the student goes to the "general" secondary schools or the
technical secondary schools. Technical secondary schools include industrial and
agricultural schools for male students, crafts school for female students, and commercial
and computer science schools for both.
At the beginning of the 11th grade, those who go to "general" secondary school have to
choose to continue their study in either the "literary branch" or the "scientific branch".
The final exams of the 12th grade (the baccalaureate) are also carried out nationally and
at the same time. The result of these exams determines which university, college and
specialization the student goes to. To do that the student has to apply through a
complicated system called Mufadalah.
Colleges charge modest fees ($10–20 a year) if the student achieves the sufficient marks
in his Baccalaureate exams. If not, the student may opt to pay higher fees ($1500–3000)
to enroll. There are some private schools and colleges but their fees are much higher.
Most universities in Syria follow the French model of the high education, the university
stages and the academic degrees are:



First stage: the Licence awarded after 4 years to 6 years depending on the field.
Second stage: the DEA or DESS 1–2 years postgraduate degree equivalent to the
Master's degree in the American-English systems.
Third stage: the doctorat 3–5 years after the DEA or an equivalent degree.
Since 1967, all schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government
supervision by the Baath Party.[65]
There are 5 state universities in Syria, and 11 private universities.[66] The top two are
University of Damascus (180,000 students)[67], and University of Aleppo. [68] One school
is a joint Syrian-European program; the Higher Institute of Business Administration
(HIBA) offer undergraduate and gradudate degrees.[69]
[edit] Military
Main article: Military of Syria
The military intelligence service Shu'bat al-Mukhabarat al-'Askariyya is influential.
[edit] Culture
See also: Music of Syria, Syrian literature, Cuisine of Syria, and Public holidays in Syria
Eggelin Tomb Tower in Palmyra.
The scribes of the city of Ugarit created a cuneiform alphabet in the fourteenth century
BCE. The alphabet was written in the familiar order we use today.[70]
Archaeologists have discovered extensive writings and evidence of a culture rivaling
those of Mesopotamia and Egypt in and around the ancient city of Ebla.[71] Later Syrian
scholars and artists contributed to Hellenistic and Roman thought and culture. Cicero was
a pupil of Antiochus of Ascalon[72] at Athens; and the writings of Posidonius of
Apamea[73] influenced Livy and Plutarch.
Philip Hitti claimed, "the scholars consider Syria as the teacher for the human
characteristics," and Andrea Parrout writes, "each civilized person in the world should
admit that he has two home countries: the one he was born in, and Syria."
Syria is a traditional society with a long cultural history.[74] Importance is placed on
family, religion, education and self discipline and respect. The Syrian's taste for the
traditional arts is expressed in dances such as the al-Samah, the Dabkeh in all their
variations and the sword dance. Marriage ceremonies and the birth of children are
occasions for the lively demonstration of folk customs.[75]
Traditional Houses of the Old Cities in Damascus, Aleppo and the other Syrian cities are
preserved and traditionally the living quarters are arranged around one or more
courtyards, typically with a fountain in the middle supplied by spring water, and
decorated with citrus trees, grape vines, and flowers.[75]
Fattoush, an example of Syrian cuisine.
Outside of larger city areas such as Damascus, Aleppo or Homs, residential areas are
often clustered in smaller villages. The buildings themselves are often quite old (perhaps
a few hundred years old), passed down to family members over several generations.
Residential construction of rough concrete and blockwork is usually unpainted, and the
palette of a Syrian village is therefore simple tones of grays and browns.[76]
Syrian painting circa 1300.
Syrians have contributed to Arabic literature and music and have a proud tradition of oral
and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom immigrated to Egypt, played a crucial
role in the nahda or Arab literary and cultural revival of the nineteenth century.
Prominent contemporary Syrian writers include, among others, Adonis, Muhammad
Maghout, Haidar Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer.
There was a private sector presence in the Syrian cinema industry until the end of the
1970s, but private investment has since preferred the more lucrative television serial
business. Syrian soap operas, in a variety of styles (all melodramatic, however), have
considerable market penetration throughout the eastern Arab world.[77]
Although declining, Syria's world-famous handicraft industry still employs thousands.
Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean, Greek, and Southwest Asian
dishes. Some Syrian dishes also evolved from Turkish and French cooking. Dishes like
shish kebab, stuffed zucchini, yabra' (stuffed grape leaves, the word yapra' derıves from
the Turkish word 'yaprak' meaning leaf), shawarma, and falafel are very popular in Syria
as the food there is diverse in taste and type. Restaurants are usually open (food is served
outdoors).[78]
[edit] Music of Syria
Syria's capital and largest city, Damascus, has long been one of the Arab world's centers
for cultural and artistic innovation, especially in the field of classical Arab music. S has
also produced several pan-Arab stars, often in exile, including George Wasoof ,Nur
Mahana and yang Sanger Lena Chamamyan. The city of Aleppo is known for its
muwashshah, a form of Andalous sung poetry popularized by Sabri Moudallal, as well as
popular stars like Sabah Fakhri. Dabka and other forms of dance music are also popular.
Also, Syria was one of the earliest centers of Christian hymnody, in a repertory known as
Syrian chant, which continues to be the liturgical music of some of the various Syrian
Christians. There was formerly a distinctive tradition of Syrian Jewish religious music,
which still flourishes in the Syrian-Jewish community of New York: see The Weekly
Maqam, Baqashot and Pizmonim.
[edit] Syrian literature
Syrian literature has been influenced by the country's political history.
Under Ottomon rule, literary production was subjected to censorship. In the second half
of the nineteenth century and the early twentieth, aspiring Syrian writers often chose
emigration, moving primarily to Egypt -where they contributed to al-Nahda, the
renaissance of Arabic literature- and to the United States, developing Syrian literature
from abroad.
From 1918 to 1926, while Syria was under French rule, French Romantic influences
inspired Syrian authors, many of whom turned away from the traditional models of
Arabic poetry.
In 1948, the partitioning of neighbouring Palestine and the establishment of Israel
brought about a new turning point in Syrian writing. Adab al-Iltizam, the "literature of
political commitment", deeply marked by social realism, mostly replaced the romantic
trend of the previous decades. Hanna Mina, rejecting art for art's sake and confronting the
social and political issues of his time, was arguably the most prominent Syrian novellist
of this era. Following the Six-Day War in 1967, Adab al-Naksa, the "literature of defeat",
grappled with the causes of the Arab defeat.
Baath Party rule, since the 1966 coup, has brought about renewed censorship. As Hanadi
Al-Samman puts it,
"In the face of threats of persecution or imprisonment, most of Syria's writers had
to make a choice between living a life of artistic freedom in exile-as do Nizar
Kabbani, Ghada al-Samman, Hamida Na'na', Salim Barakat, and prominent poet,
critic, and novelist 'Ali Ahmad Sa'id (Adonis)-or resorting to subversive modes of
expression that seemingly comply with the demands of the authoritarian police
state while undermining and questioning the legitimacy of its rule through subtle
literary techniques and new genres".
In this context, the genre of the historical novel, spearheaded by Nabil Sulayman,
Fawwaz Haddad, Khyri al-Dhahabi and Nihad Siris, is sometimes used as a means of
expressing dissent, critiquing the present through a depiction of the past. Syrian folk
narrative, as a subgenre of historical fiction, is imbued with magical realism, and is also
used as a means of veiled criticism of the present. Salim Barakat, a Syrian émigré living
in Sweden, is one of the leading figures of the genre.
Contemporary Syrian literature also encompasses science fiction and futuristic utopiae
(Nuhad Sharif, Talib Umran), which may also serve as media of dissent.
Mohja Kahf has argued that literary dissent is typically expressed through the "poetics of
Syrian silence":
"The nostlagic, moist-eyed silences of Ulfat Idilbi's narrative could not be more
different from the chilling, cynical silences in Zakaria Tamer's stories. The
impassioned lacunae in Nizar Kabbani's proclaim exactly what it is they are not
saying explicitly, while the poet Muhammad al-Maghut's silence is sardonic,
sneering both at the authorities and at himself, at the futility and absurdity of the
human situation under authoritarian rule".
[edit] Fairs and festivals
Festival of le Crac des Chevaliers and the Valley for Arts & Culture (2008)
Festival/Fair
City
Month
Flower Festival
Latakia
April
Assyrian New Year Festival
Qamishli
April
Traditional Festival
Palmyra
May
International Flower Fair
Damascus
May
Syrian Song Festival
Aleppo
July
Marmarita Festival
Hims
August
Festival of le Crac des Chevaliers and the Valley for
Arts&Culture
Hims
August
Vine Festival
As
Suwayda
September
Cotton Festival
Aleppo
September
Damascus International Fair
Damascus
September
Festival of Love and Peace
Lattakia
2 - 12
August
Bosra Festival
Bosra
September
Film and Theatre Festival
Damascus
November
Jasmine Festival
Damascus
April
[edit] See also
Syria portal
Main article: Outline of Syria

List of Syria-related topics
[edit] References




Boczek, Boleslaw Adam (2006). International Law: A Dictionary. Scarecrow
Press. ISBN 0810850788
Karoubi, Mohammad Taghi (2004). Just or Unjust War? Ashgate Publishing
ISBN 0754623750
the editors of Time-Life Books. (1989). Timeframe AD 1200-1300: The Mongol
Conquests. Time-Life Books. ISBN 0-8094-6437-3.
Forward Magazine (check it also online), Syria's English monthly since 2007.
[edit] Footnotes
1. ^ a b c d "Syria". International Monetary Fund.
http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006
&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=463&s=NGDPD%2C
NGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr1.x=39&pr1.y=13.
Retrieved on 2009-04-22.
2. ^ Neo Lithic Tell Ramad in the Damascus Basin of Syria
3. ^ Baath Party The Columbia Encyclopedia Sixth Edition 2001–05. Retrieved
2007, 06-13.
4. ^ a b c d e "Syria (05/07)". State.gov. http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
5. ^ "Syria article - Microsoft Encarta Encyclopedia". Msn.com.
http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761569233_2/Syria.html.
6. ^ First proposed by Theodor Nöldeke in 1881; cf. Harper, Douglas (November
2001). "Syria". Online Etymology Dictionary.
http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=Syria. Retrieved on 2007-06-13..
7. ^ Pliny. "Book 5 Section 66". Natural History. University of Chicago Website.
http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/L/Roman/Texts/Pliny_the_Elder/5*.html.
8. ^ "Syria :: Roman provincial organization - Britannica Online Encyclopedia".
Britannica.com.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29905/Romanprovincial-organization#default. Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
9. ^ a b c "Syria: A country Study - Ancient Syria". Library of Congress. Data as of
April 1987. http://ancienthistory.about.com/library/bl/bl_syriaancient.htm.
Retrieved on 2007-09-05.
10. ^ "The Aramaic Language and Its Classification". Journal of Assyrian Academic
Studies Vol. 14 (No. 1). http://www.jaas.org/edocs/v14n1/e8.pdf.
11. ^ Relations between God and Man in the Hurro-Hittite Song of Release, Mary R.
Bachvarova, Journal of the American Oriental Society, Jan-Mar SAAD 2005
12. ^ Cavendish Corporation, Marshall (2006). World and Its Peoples. Marshall
Cavendish. p. 183. ISBN 0761475710.
13. ^ Syria: History Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008. Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
2008-10-22
14. ^ Timeframe pp. 59-75
15. ^ Battle of Aleppo
16. ^ The Eastern Mediterranean, 1400–1600 A.D.
17. ^ http://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/fr/IMG/pdf/III_-_Protmand_modifie_mandat.pdf
18. ^ Peter N. Stearns, William Leonard Langer. "The Middle East, p761". The
Encyclopedia of World History. Houghton Mifflin Books.
http://books.google.com/books?id=MziRd4ddZz4C&dq=league+of+nations+man
date+for+syria&source=gbs_summary_s&cad=0.
19. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Background Note: Syria". United States Department of State,
Bureau of Near Eastern Affairs, May 2007.
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm.
20. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Syria: World War II and independence". Britannica Online
Encyclopedia.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/578856/Syria/29922/World-War-IIand-independence.
21. ^ Walt, Stephen (1990). The Origins of Alliances. Cornell University Press.
pp. 72–73. ISBN 0801494184.
22. ^ Brecher, Michael; Jonathan Wilkenfeld (1997). A Study of Crisis. University of
Michigan Press. pp. 345–346. ISBN 0472108069.
23. ^ Kamrava, Mehran, The Modern Middle East: A Political History since the First
World War, University of California Press; 1 edition, page 48
24. ^ http://www.mediamonitors.net/mosaddeq24.html#_edn21
25. ^ Bard, Mitchell G. (2002). The Complete Idiot's Guide to Middle East Conflict.
Alpha books. ISBN 0028644107, 2002, p. 196.
26. ^ "A Campaign for the Books". Time Magazine. September 1, 1967.
http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,837237,00.
27. ^ "Jordan asked Nixon to attack Syria, declassified papers show - CNN.com".
Edition.cnn.com.
http://edition.cnn.com/2007/POLITICS/11/28/nixon.papers/index.html. Retrieved
on 2008-10-25.
28. ^ Seale, Patrick (1988). Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East. University of
California Press. ISBN 0520069765.
29. ^ Rabinovich, Abraham (2005). The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That
Transformed the Middle East. New York, NY: Schocken Books. p. 302. ISBN
0805241760.
30. ^ "Syria's Role in Lebanon by Mona Yacoubian: USIPeace Briefing: U.S.
Institute of Peace". Usip.org.
http://www.usip.org/pubs/usipeace_briefings/2006/1109_syria_lebanon.html.
Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
31. ^ "‫"ال مج ن س ين م لف عن ف ت فت أحمد ال ل ب نان ي ال وزي ر ت قري ر‬.
Alzaytouna.net. http://www.alzaytouna.net/arabic/?c=201&a=52460. Retrieved
on 2008-10-25.
32. ^ Marc PerelmanFri. Jul 11, 2003 (By Marc PerelmanFri. Jul 11, 2003). ""Syria
Makes Overture Over Negotiations - Forward.com"". Forward.com.
http://www.forward.com/articles/7655/. Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
33. ^ ""First Lady Asma al-Assad: When we talk about Damascus, we are talking
about history itself - Forward Magazine"". Forward Magazine. http://www.fwmagazine.com/content/first-lady-asma-al-assad-when-we-talk-about-damascuswe-are-talking-about-history-itself.
34. ^ "BBC NEWS | Middle East | Profile: Syria's Bashar al-Assad". News.bbc.co.uk.
Last Updated:. http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/2579331.stm. Retrieved on
2008-10-25.
35. ^ "Israel launches strikes on Syria in retaliation for bomb attack". The
Independent. http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/israellaunches-strikes-on-syria-in-retaliation-for-bomb-attack-582373.html. Retrieved
on 2008-10-23.
36. ^ Fact Sheet, The White House
37. ^ "Naharnet Newsdesk - Syria Curbs Kurdish Riots for a Merger with Iraq's
Kurdistan". Naharnet.com.
http://www.naharnet.com/domino/tn/Newsdesk.nsf/Story/8A24116B9C5C2F34C
2256E59002D08F0?OpenDocument&PRINT. Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
38. ^ Sanger, David (2007-10-14). "Israel Struck Syrian Nuclear Project, Analysts
Say". The New York Times.
http://www.nytimes.com/2007/10/14/washington/14weapons.html?hp. Retrieved
on 2007-10-15.
39. ^ Walker, Peter; News Agencies (21 May 2008). "Olmert confirms peace talks
with Syria" (in English). The Guardian.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2008/may/21/israelandthepalestinians.syria.
Retrieved on 2008-05-21. "Israel and Syria are holding indirect peace talks, with
Turkey acting as a mediator..."
40. ^ "Syria clamps down on Kurd parties". BBC News.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/3774055.stm. Retrieved on 2008-10-22.
41. ^ a b c d "Constitution of Syria". http://www.servat.unibe.ch/icl/sy00000_.html.
Retrieved on 2008-10-22.
42. ^ a b National Council of Geography Teachers (U.S.) (1928). The Journal of
Geography. The Journal of geography. p. 167.
43. ^ F. A. Schaeffer, Claude (2003). Syria and the Cradle of Civilization: The
Findings of Claude F a Schaeffer in Ras Shamra. Trubner & Company. ISBN
1844531295.
44. ^
http://creativesyria.com/discussion/topicpost.php?TopicAuthorID=23&TopicID=
28
45. ^ "The Avalon Project: Israeli-Syrian General Armistice Agreement, July 20,
1949". Yale.edu. http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/mideast/arm04.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
46. ^ Morris (2001) , p. 327: "Another eighty to ninety thousand civilians fled or
were driven from the Golan Heights."
47. ^ Report of the UN Secretary-General under GA res. 2252 (ES-V) and SC res.
237 (1967), p. 14: "The original population, assumed to have been some 115,000
according to Syrian sources, and some 90,000 according to Israel sources,
included 17,000 Palestinian refugees registered with UNRWA. At the time of the
Special Representative's visit, this entire population had left the area, except for
some 6,000 Druses living in agricultural villages and for some 250 other civilians
living mainly in the town of Kuneitra".
48. ^ "BBC NEWS | World | Middle East | Country profiles | Regions and territories:
The Golan Heights". News.bbc.co.uk. Page last updated at 15:09 GMT, Tuesday,
15 January 2008.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/country_profiles/3393813.stm.
Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
49. ^ "BBC NEWS". News.bbc.co.uk. Monday, 7 February, 2005, 19:48 GMT.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4244333.stm. Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
50. ^ "Worldandnation: Golan families dream of reunion". Sptimes.com.
http://www.sptimes.com/2007/02/18/Worldandnation/Golan_families_dream_.sht
ml. Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
51. ^ "Syria travel guide - Wikitravel". Wikitravel.org.
http://wikitravel.org/en/Syria#Get_in. Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
52. ^ "How to travel by train from London to Syria | Train travel in Syria".
Seat61.com. http://www.seat61.com/Syria.htm. Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
53. ^ a b "World Refugee Survey 2008". U.S. Committee for Refugees and
Immigrants. 2008-06-19. http://www.refugees.org/survey.
54. ^ "Phoenicians Online Extra @ National Geographic Magazine".
Magma.nationalgeographic.com. October 2004.
http://magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/0410/feature2/online_extra.html.
Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
55. ^ "Syria". The World Factbook. 2007.
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sy.html#People.
56. ^ "Syria - Kurds". Library of Congress Country Studies.
http://countrystudies.us/syria/23.htm.
57. ^ Assyrian Neo-Aramaic, Ethnologue.com
58. ^ Iraqi Christian refugees pine for home, but fear they face death
59. ^ A Country Study: Syria. The Library of Congress.
60. ^ The Arabs of Brazil. Saudi Aramco World.
61. ^ Inmigracion sirio-libanesa en Argentina
62. ^ a b c d "Syria - International Religious Freedom Report 2006". U.S. Department
of State. 2006. http://www.state.gov/g/drl/rls/irf/2006/71432.htm. Retrieved on
2009-06-28.
63. ^ Forward Magazine, Interview with Ignatius IV, the Patriarch of Antioch and All
the East, March 2008
64. ^ "Syrian Jews". Jewishvirtuallibrary.org.
http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/anti-semitism/syrianjews.html.
Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
65. ^ "Syria - Education". Countrystudies.us. http://countrystudies.us/syria/37.htm.
Retrieved on 2008-10-25.
66. ^ Forward Magazine, Private Universities in Syria, by Joshua Landis, July 2007
67. ^ Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Damascus University, February
2008
68. ^ Forward Magazine, Interview with President of Aleppo University, May 2008
69. ^ Forward Magazine, Interview with the Rector of HIBA, March 2008
70. ^ Gordon, Cyrus Herzl (1965). The Ancient Near East. W.W. Norton & Company
Press. ISBN 0-393-00275-6.
71. ^ An up-to-date account for the layman, written by the head of the archaeological
team that uncovered Ebla is Paolo Matthiae, The Royal Archives of Ebla (Skira)
2007.
72. ^ Plutarch, Cicero, c. 4; Lucullus, c. 4; Cicero, Academica, ii. 19.
73. ^ Posidonius, Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition.
74. ^ Hopwood, Derek (1988). Syria 1945-1986: Politics and Society. Routledge.
ISBN 0044450397.
75. ^ a b Salamandra, Christa (2004). A New Old Damascus: Authenticity and
Distinction in Urban Syria. Indiana University Press. p. 103. ISBN 0253217229.
76. ^ Antoun, Richard (1991). Syria: Society, Culture, and Polity. SUNY Press.
ISBN 0791407136.
77. ^ Salti, Rasha (2006). Insights Into Syrian Cinema: Essays and Conversations
with Contemporary Filmmakers. ArteEast. ISBN 1892494701.
78. ^ Akbar Mahdi, Ali; Richard M. Lerner (2003). Teen Life in the Middle East.
Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 190. ISBN 031331893X.
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