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Ecological Biogeography
ECOLOGICAL BIOGEOGRAPHY
Accounts for the present
distributions in terms of
interactions between
organisms and their physical
and biotic environments
MARINE EVOLUTION AND BIOGEOGRAPHY
R I TA C A STILH O
Ecological Biogeography
Ecological Biogeography
Distributional patterns
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
Why is a species confined to
its present range in space?
Ecological Biogeography
What roles do water, climate,
latitude, topography and
interactions with other
organisms play in limiting its
distribution?
Ecological Biogeography
What enables it to live where it
does?
What prevents it from
expanding into another areas?
Ecological Biogeography
How do we account for the
replacement of species as one
moves from one environment
to another?
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
Why are there more species in
the tropics than in cooler
environments?
Ecological Biogeography
What controls the diversity of
organisms that is found in any
particular region?
Ecological Biogeography
Short-term periods of time,
with local, within-habitat,
intracontinental questions,
with species and subspecies
living organisms.
PATTERNS
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
No two species are identical in their patterns of distribution
Ecological Biogeography
Causes of pattern vary according to the taxonomic level
Genus
Family
Ecological Biogeography
Causes of patterns also vary with the spatial scale
Ecological Biogeography
Factors in patterns of distribution
Geological history
Climate
Availability of food
Chemistry of Environment
Competition
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Ecological Biogeography
1 °C
3 °C
2 °C
4 °C
Ecological Biogeography
Spatial and temporal isolation leads to speciation
Expected
changes in the
abundance of
the cod stocks
with a
temperature
increase
above current
levels.
.
Ecological Biogeography
Ecological Biogeography
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Primarily coastal taxa have
peaks of diversity in the
western Pacific and show
clear latitudinal gradients along
the coasts of continents (Fig.
a–g).
X
Primarily coastal taxa have
peaks of diversity in the
western Pacific and show
clear latitudinal gradients along
the coasts of continents (Fig.
a–g).
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Primarily oceanic taxa tended
to show pantropical or
circumglobal distributions with
diversity peaking at latitudes
between 20° and 40° in all
oceans (Fig. h–m).
Tintensor et al. 2010
Ecological Biogeography
Ecological Biogeography
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Ecological Biogeography
●
SCALE
Ecological Biogeography
●
SCALE
SCALE
Ecological Biogeography
●
SCALE
• Spatial and temporal dimension of sampling
and observation
– Extent: size of the study area or the duration of
time under consideration
– Grain: level of spatial resolution
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
●
SCALE
Size of the study area
Ecological Biogeography
●
SCALE
Ecological Biogeography
●
SCALE
Level of spatial resolution
Ecological Biogeography
●
SCALE
Duration
1 week
1 month
1 year
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
Schematic drawing showing the dominant space- and time-scales in the marine environment for
physical processes and biological population
Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
WHAT COMES
TO OUR MIND?
WHAT IS
BIODIVERSITY
Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
“A definition of biodiversity that is
altogether simple, comprehensive, and
fully operation (i.e., responsive to reallife management and regulatory
questions) is unlikely to be found”
Noss (1990)
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Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
“The total variability of life on earth”
(Heywood et al. 1995)
Ecological Biogeography
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BIODIVERSITY
“More useful than a definition, perhaps,
would be a characterization of
biodiversity that identifies the major
components at several levels of
organization”
Noss (1990)
Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
“The variety and variability among
living organisms and the ecological
complexes in which they occur”
OTA (1987)
Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
“The variability of life from all sources,
including within species, between
species, and of ecosystems”
Whitaker and Fernandez-Palacios
(2007).
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Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
“... the variety of life and its
processes; ... the variety of living
organisms, the genetic differences
among them, and the communities and
ecosystems in which they occur.”
Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
“Biodiversity, simply stated, is the total
expression of life on Earth”
Conservation International
Keystone Center (1991)
Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
Ecological Biogeography
●
BIODIVERSITY
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
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DIVERSITY
Ecological Biogeography
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SPECIES
Knowledge on global diversity must be established
to appreciate the increasing extinction rate of
species
• Since there is no absolute idea on how many species existed
in the first place, extinction rates are vaguely estimated
• Little is known about extinction rates of microorganisms
• We can rarely be sure that a species is actually lost, that no
isolated members remain
Ecological Biogeography
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DIVERSITY
WHAT do you measure?
WHEN and WHERE do you measure it?
DIVERSITY
MEASUREMENTS
HOW do you compare
different types of measurement?
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
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DIVERSITY
●
ers
DIVERSITY
iv
d
a
y
sit
h
p
l
A
r
e
v
i
d
a
h
Ecological Biogeography
ity
✘
2
2
Alp
2
2
2
2
2
The number of species per unit.
The more species present in a sample, the 'richer' the sample.
1
1
8
1
1
1
1
Evenness is a measure of the relative abundance of the
different species making up the richness of an area.
Ecological Biogeography
ity
ers
lph
iv
d
a
A
●
DIVERSITY
Ecological Biogeography
ity
ers
Shannon-Wiener index (H)
lph
A
Species richness (S)
+
iv
d
a
●
DIVERSITY
Shannon-Wiener index (H)
H = -sum(Pilog[Pi])
Pi : abundance of a given species in a zone divided by the total
number of species observed in that zone.
1.5 > H < 3.5
Proportion of each species within a zone (E)
Relation between Evenness, Heterogeneity and Species richness:
E = H/log(S)
H = E/log(S)
http://www.pisces-conservation.com/sdrhelp/index.html?shannonw.htm
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Ecological Biogeography
ity
●
ers
iv
d
Sample
a
h
p
l
A
Species 1 Species 2 Species 1
1
99
1
0
2
50
50
0
3
33
33
33
Sample
S
E
H
1
2
0.08
0.056
2
2
1
0.693
3
3
1
1.098
Ecological Biogeography
ity
●
ers
iv
d
a
Number of species
H1
H2
H3
Environmental gradient
Ecological Biogeography
ity
ers
●
DIVERSITY
iv
d
a
h
p
l
A
Distribution of the numbers of individuals among the species counted
Beta diversity
DIVERSITY
Changing levels of
alpha diversity
along an
environmental
gradient that
creates a series of
different habitats
(H1, H2, H3)
reflect beta
diversity (average
number of species
in different
habitats).
t
Be
DIVERSITY
To what extent do species turnover between different sites or along a
gradient?
Ecological Biogeography
ity
ers
●
DIVERSITY
iv
d
a
t
Be
?
low alpha
(1 species per box)
low beta
(1 type of box)
low alpha
(1 species per box)
high beta
(3 different boxes)
high alpha
high alpha
(3 species per box)
(3 species per box)
high beta
low beta
(3 different boxes)
(1 type of box)
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
y
Ecological Biogeography
sit
er
iv
d
a
m
m
a
DIVERSITY
Ecological Biogeography
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DIVERSITY
Ecological Biogeography
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DIVERSITY
Rate of species change with
distance in the same habitat
(geographical replacement of
species = gamma diversity)
Number of species
G
●
Distance across landscape
in the same habitat
Ecological Biogeography
●
DIVERSITY
Alpha-diversity
Measured locally, at a single site.
Number of species in a local homogenous community.
Beta-diversity
Measures the uniqueness; the difference between two sites.
Species distributions among different habitats.
Gamma-diversity
Measured over a large scale, same concept as alpha-diversity.
Number of species in a region where there are no barriers to dispersal
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
NUMBER OF
SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
The taxon with the largest biomass on
Earth: ANTS
“The world is a living tissue of ants with minor
infestations of trees, birds, and humans. The ants
see humans as big slabs of animated but not very
well defended food. The ability to move, far from
being a deterrent, serves a guarantee of
freshness. We are at the bottom of the food
chain.”
Neal Stephenson (1999) Cryptonomicon
What could be inferred about the work of the
Creator from a study of His works?
That he has an inordinate fondness for beetles!
J. B. S. Haldane
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
Group
Approximate
numbers of
species in
major groups
(UNEP,
Global
Biodiversity
Assessment,
1995)
No. of described
species
●
Estimated total
no. of species
SPECIES
Viruses
4 000
400 000
1
4 000
1 000 000
0.4
4.8
Fungi
72 000
1 500 000
Protozoa
40 000
200 000
20
Algae
40 000
400 000
10
Plants
270 000
320 000
84.4
Nematodes
25 000
400 000
6.2
Crustaceans
40 000
150 000
26.7
Arachnids
75 000
750 000
10
Insects
950 000
8 000 000
11.9
Mollusks
70 000
200 000
35
Vertebrates
45 000
50 000
90
Others
115 000
250 000
46
Totals
1 750 000
13 620 000
12.8
●
●
SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
%
Described
Bacteria
Ecological Biogeography
Ecological Biogeography
SPECIES
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
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SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
Why is biodiversity important to
biogeography?
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
The Census produced the first all-taxon maps of global marine species using the
distributions of more than 65,000 species from the Ocean Biogeographic
Information System
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
●
SPECIES
Ecological Biogeography
CORAL
TRIANGLE
Ecological Biogeography
●
CORAL TRIANGLE
Ecological Biogeography
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CORAL TRIANGLE
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015
Ecological Biogeography
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CORAL TRIANGLE
Ecological Biogeography
PATTERNS
SCALE
WHAT IS BIODIVERSITY
DIVERSITY MEASUREMENTS
NUMBER OF SPECIES
CORAL TRIANGLE
END
BEMO_T03_Ecological.key - 12 February, 2015