Download The truth about the Islamic jihad

The truth about
the Islamic jihad
Australian
Festival of Light
Resource Paper
FEBRUARY 2002
by Dr David Phillips, BSc, PhD, ThA
National President, Australian Festival of Light
The Ka‘bah at the Great Mosque, Mecca
Reprints available from: Festival of Light, 4th Floor, 68 Grenfell St, Adelaide, SA 5000 - Phone: 08 8223 6383.
The big unanswered question about the 11 September 2001
attack on the World Trade Centre is: Why did they do it?
What motivated nineteen educated Muslims to commit
suicide and kill thousands of innocent men, women and
children in New York and Washington?
Mohamed Atta, who flew the first plane into the World
Trade Centre and played a key role in organising the whole
operation, was the son of a middle-class lawyer in Cairo. The
family was comfortable enough to afford a getaway home on
the Mediterranean coast.
Atta studied architecture at Cairo University, followed by
urban planning at the Technical University in Hamburg,
Germany. Fellow students said he was smart, hard-working
and communicated easily with children, old men, professors
and people in government.1
In Egypt Atta joined a group associated with the Muslim
Brotherhood, whose extreme propaganda included the
demonisation of the United States. Described as “very, very
religious” and “searching for justice”, he was a man on a
mission. His thesis was dedicated with this quote from the
Qur’an: My Prayer and my sacrifice and my life and my death
belong to Allah, the Lord of the worlds.2
What is it about Islam and its teachings on jihad that leads
able young men to undertake a suicide mission with such
terrible consequences?
The initiator of the jihad against America, Osama Bin
Laden, explained his reasons in his 1996 Declaration of War
against America.3 He lists the domestic woes of Saudi Arabia,
which revoked his citizenship and expelled him in 1994.4 Bin
Laden’s solution to what he calls the “atrocious plans” of the
Saudi Ministry of Interior is that the “people of Islam should
join forces and support each other to get rid of the main Kufr
[infidel]”, namely the USA.5
Why does the failure of Saudi domestic policy justify a
jihad against America?
Closer to home, why did Australian convert to Islam, David
Hicks, feel obliged to fight in a civil war in Muslim
Afghanistan? And how did the Taliban justify fighting a jihad
against other Afghans?
To understand such questions we must understand the
Arab-Islamic concept of jihad, which is so different from
Western-Christian thought and culture.
The first jihad
The origin of the Islamic jihad is found in Muhammad’s life in
Mecca and Medina when he founded Islam in the 7th century AD.
Muhammad was born in Arabia around 570 AD. The region
was dominated by wild, lawless Arab nomads who worshipped
stars, sacred stones and idols. However, their highest loyalty
was to their tribe and the veneration of their tribe’s common
ancestor. Muhammad belonged to the Quraysh tribe who lived
8
in the well-watered valley of Mecca. They were guardians of the
cube-like shrine, the Ka‘bah, sacred to the deity known simply
as “the god” (Allah - from al-ilah = the god). The Quraysh tribe
had skilfully elevated Allah above the hundreds of tribal divinities, whose images were also displayed in and around the Ka‘bah,
so that other Arab tribes came to Mecca on annual pilgrimage to
worship and to trade.6
In the vicinity of Mecca lived several groups of monotheists:
Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians (or Magians). Some of the
Arabs at that time began to seek an alternative to the prevailing
practice of idol worship and were identifying the God of the Jews
and Christians with Allah, the Lord of the Ka‘bah.7
Approaching his fortieth year, Muhammad experienced a
vision of an angel telling him to proclaim Allah, the Lord of the
Ka‘bah, as the one true God who demands submission (islam) to
the exclusion of all other deities. This and other angelic messages were recited by Muhammad and written down by his followers to form the Qur’an (or Koran, Arabic for “recitation”).
The Qur’an has 114 suras (or chapters), arranged in order of
decreasing length - except for the first sura, which is short and
used in daily prayers.
Muhammad understood his mission as restoring the faith of
the prophet Abraham (Ibrahim), seen as the first muslim, meaning
one who submits to Allah. When Muhammad began proclaiming
Allah as the creator, guide and judge of every person, most Meccans
scoffed. Then their mockery turned to anger. They feared that
trade would suffer if the Ka‘bah had only one god instead of hundreds of tribal idols that attracted many clans to Mecca.
About this time his two major supporters, his wife and his
uncle Abu Talib, died. Fearing for his small band of followers,
Muhammad fled from Mecca for the oasis settlement of Yathrib
later renamed Medinat al-Nabi (or “City of the Prophet”), usually shortened to Medina.
The migration (hijrah) to Medina in 622 AD saw a major
change in Muhammad’s fortunes and the event is celebrated by
Muslims as the commencement of the Islamic era. He had been
invited to the town to arbitrate between feuding tribal factions.
Through a series of pacts, he established an ordered community
(ummah) reflecting the tribal values of the time but in submission to Allah and Muhammad.
This concept of a community, with every aspect of life - political, religious, social and economic - totally submitted to the
will of Allah, is at the heart of Islam. Given the ongoing threat
from Mecca, Muhammad now acted to secure the new community from external threat and internal dissension. Believers were
exhorted to struggle (jihad) against the forces of unbelief and
were promised a great reward for their action: to him who fights
in the way of Allah whether he is slain, or is victorious, we shall
in time grant a mighty reward.8
The first successful jihad was the Battle of Badr in 624 AD - a
raid on a large caravan of traders led by Abu Sufyan, the most
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Light, February 2002
prominent man in Mecca, and protected by a Meccan army a
thousand strong. In one of the most fateful battles in history,
350 Muslims won a victory that is still revered within Islam as
their finest hour on the battlefield.9
Muhammad instructed his followers to pray towards Jerusalem, expecting local Jews to accept him as a prophet of God. However, three Jewish tribes in Medina refused to accept him as a
prophet. Tensions mounted and Muhammad ordered attacks on
each tribe in turn. The first two tribes were exiled, leaving their
fields and possessions as spoils for the Muslim warriors. The jihad
against the third tribe resulted in over 600 men beheaded, the women
and children enslaved, and their property plundered.10
Next came a challenge to Mecca - still controlled by the hostile Quraysh tribe. Muhammad told his followers to pray towards the Ka‘bah in Mecca and to fulfil there the ancient pilgrimage rites. After intermittent skirmishes over several years a
truce was signed in the sixth year of the hijrah (migration to
Medina) achieving a pause in hostilities. Within two years,
Muhammad cancelled the truce and marched on Mecca in command of an army ten thousand strong. Some hasty negotiations
secured the capitulation of his staunchest enemies and
Muhammad was able to occupy Mecca in 630 AD, destroy the
idols of the Ka‘bah, and declare the city a Muslim community.11
Two years later, after a brief illness, Muhammad died in
Medina where his tomb is still visited by pilgrims today.
The central role of the jihad in Muhammad’s campaign to
enforce Islam first on Medina and then on Mecca has provided a
model for Muslims ever since. Submission (islam) to the will of
Allah means, in practice, submission to a Muslim military or
political leader.
The pillars of Islam
The Qur’an commands Muslims to express their communal
identity by performing certain acts, sometimes called the “pillars” of Islam.12 The primary act is that of witnessing that There
is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah.
Prayer facing the Ka‘bah in Mecca is obligatory five times a
day at sunrise, noon, afternoon, sunset and evening. In Muslim
communities the stillness of dawn is shattered daily by the voice
of the muezzin calling the faithful to prayer. The noon prayer on
Fridays is in the mosque followed by a sermon and religious
police often ensure that all Muslim men attend.
Fasting is required between sunrise and sunset during the month
of Ramadan. Alms giving is commended as a means of purifying
one’s wealth and helping the poor. The most complex ritual duty is
the pilgrimage (hajj) to Mecca, which should be undertaken at
least once in a believer’s lifetime if the means are available.
Although the duty of jihad or holy war against infidels is not
counted among the five pillars by most Muslims, it is repeatedly
emphasised in the Qur’an and Traditions, and is considered to
be sufficiently fulfilled when performed at least by a certain
number of Muslims.13 The jihad is included as the sixth pillar of
Islam by one Muslim tradition dating back to a dissident group
of largely of Persian origin in about 661 AD.14
Muslim doctrine of jihad
The Arabic word jihad literally means struggle, of which there
are three kinds: military struggle, preaching struggle, and personal struggle.15 A Muslim tradition says “whoever among you
sees anything blameworthy shall alter it with his hand [jihad of
the sword]; if he cannot do this, he shall do it with the tongue
[preaching jihad]; if he cannot do this, he shall do it at heart
[jihad against one’s sinful inclinations].”16
The legal interpretation of jihad in mainstream Muslim teaching is “fighting the unbelievers by striking them, taking their
property, demolishing their places of worship, smashing their
idols and the like.”17
The treatment of non-Muslims subject to jihad differs according to whether they are unbelievers such as animists, or “People of the Book” which includes Christians, Jews and ZoroastriLight, February 2002
ans. When a jihad is declared against unbelievers, traditional
Muslim jurists give them three options: convert to Islam, become slaves or be killed. People of the Book, however, may
either convert to Islam, accept subjugation under Islamic rule as
a “protected minority” (dhimmi) in return for payment by every
adult male of a poll-tax (jizyah - waived in the event of conversion to Islam), or be killed.18
In Muslim doctrine, the world is divided into the House of
Islam where Islamic law prevails, and the House of War where
infidels rule, eg Australia.19 In the House of War, “there is a
morally necessary, legally and religiously obligatory state of war
- that can only be interrupted, at Muslim expediency, by a truce
of limited duration but not by a peace treaty - until the final and
inevitable triumph of Islam over non-Islam.”20
This obligatory state of war, as Pakistani religious scholar
Mawdudi wrote, is because Islam is not just a religion but “a
revolutionary ideology and program which seeks to alter the social order and rebuild it in conformity with its own tenets and
ideals.”21 The Qur’an and Muslim tradition (hadith) discourage
permanent Muslim residence in non-Muslim territory. “The only
option for Muslims with a conscience and the means of living in
the House of War is hijrah (migration), in keeping with the Prophetic example, to prepare for military jihad against such a system. Jihad is, therefore, a necessary religious duty to which a
Muslim dedicates himself in the service of God.”22
The reward for being killed in a jihad, as bin Laden explains
in his 1996 Declaration of War, is that “... he will be shown his
seat in paradise, he will be decorated with the jewels of belief
(Imaan), married off to the beautiful ones, protected from the
test in the grave, assured security in the day of judgement, crowned
with the crown of dignity, a ruby of which is better than this
whole world (Duniah) and its entire content, wedded to seventy
two of the pure Houries (beautiful ones of Paradise) ...”23
Branches of Islam
Islam was divided into the Sunni and Shiite branches very
early, in a dispute over leadership that arose while Muhammad’s
body was awaiting burial.
Shiites believe that Muhammad intended his son-in-law Ali
to succeed him, since Muhammad had honoured Ali before a
large Muslim assembly shortly before he died. Ali was the first
male to accept his message and, as father of the Prophet’s only
surviving grandchildren, he could have kept the leadership within
the Prophet’s family.24
While Ali and kinsmen were preparing Muhammad’s body
for burial, other Muslim leaders hastily chose an older man from
the Quraysh tribe, Abu Bakr, as his Successor or Caliph.25 Sunni
Muslims support this decision to choose the Caliph. Two years
later, on his deathbed, Abu Bakr averted another dispute over
leadership by appointing Umar to succeed him as Caliph.
The Caliph’s duties included defending the House of Islam
from external threat and internal rebellion, if necessary with a
call to jihad.26 Umar made full use of the jihad to establish the
Arab Muslim empire by conquering Syria, Iraq, Egypt and Persia. After a decade of military conquest Umar was murdered.
The council of electors again passed over Ali and appointed as
Caliph Uthman from the Meccan clan of Umayyah, which had
once led opposition to Muhammad. After 12 years of controlling
the Muslim empire mostly by his own clan, he also was murdered.
At last, Ali became Caliph. The Medinans hailed him but
leading Meccans raised an army against him. Although this
rebellion was suppressed, Ali was subsequently deposed and replaced by Muawiyah of Syria, who founded the Umayyad dynasty that lasted nearly a century. The Umayyad victors forged
the mainstream Islamic culture that became Sunni Islam (named
after the sunnah or customs of Muhammad and the Caliphate).27
The Sunnis today comprise about 90% of the Islamic world.
The losers, who sided with Ali, became known as Shiites or
Shi‘ah, meaning the faction of Ali. Today, Shiites make up most of
the people of Iran and are also found as minority groups elsewhere.
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9
The Wahhabi branch of Sunni Islam developed in the late
18th century from the teaching of Ibn ‘Abd al-Wahhab. After
studying in Mecca and Medina, Wahhab called Muslims to return to the pristine core of faith found in the Qur’an and the
Traditions (hadith). He called for a close imitation of the Prophet
and his Companions and denounced as unbelievers all who ignored his message, making them subject to jihad. A local chieftain, Muhammad ibn Sa’ud, responded to his appeal and together
they waged military campaigns in Arabia that led to the capture
of Mecca in 1803 AD. Although subsequently defeated by an
Ottoman army in 1818, six years later Ibn Sa’ud, a descendent
of Muhammad ibn Sa’ud, revived Wahhabism, recaptured Mecca
and established the modern state of Saudi Arabia.28 Today,
Wahhabi Muslims dominate that country and their influence
extends throughout the Muslim world due to the centrality of
Mecca to Islam.
Sufism is a minority Muslim tradition that is essentially mystical: “Sufism is keeping the heart pure from the pollution of
discord,” explains a Sufi maxim.29 Sufis, such as former Indonesian president Abdurrahman Wahid, are inclined to be tolerant of other religions and emphasise personal rather than military jihad. For example, Sufi teacher Mahmud Muhammad Taha
led an Islamic reform movement in Sudan stressing the qualities
of tolerance, justice, and mercy and opposed the implementation
of shariah law as being contrary to the essence of Islam. Other
Muslims condemned Taha’s teaching and he was executed in
Sudan for heresy in January 1985.30
Some Muslim reformists seek to redefine Islam as a religious
community without the political and military elements. However, such views are not representative of mainstream Islam.
Muslim military threats
The spread of Islam during its first hundred years was spectacular. During that time it conquered all of the Middle East to
the borders of India, all of North Africa, Spain and the Iberian
Peninsula, and by 732 AD it was only a short distance from Paris.
Until then, Islam had only known victory. But the outnumbered
French forces defeated the Muslims at the Battle of Poitiers under the command of Charles Martel.
“The significance of this victory cannot be overstated,” writes
Kameel Majdali. “This battle was credited for stopping the spread
of Islam into Europe. If the Muslims had won this battle Paris,
Belgium, Holland, perhaps even the British Isles, would have
been targeted for jihad.”31
One of the greatest Muslim military achievements was the Ottoman Empire, centred in the region now called Turkey, that began
about 1300 AD and lasted 600 years until 1922. Almost continuous
military jihad against Christian Europe saw Ottoman territory expand greatly. Christian Constantinople fell to the Ottomans in
1453. Christian Europe was again threatened when Vienna, the
chief remaining bulwark against further Muslim advance, was besieged in 1529 and 1683 by an Ottoman army. Fortunately, these
attacks failed and Christian Europe was preserved.32
During the 20th century, jihads have occurred in countries
throughout the world, particularly in tropical Africa. Dr John
Azumah from Nigeria has documented the Black African experience of Muslim jihads during recent centuries in his book The
Legacy of Arab-Islam in Africa.33
Dr Azumah writes: “the waging of holy war against traditional African communities was always explicitly stated in the
appointment letters of emirs, and the jihad movements subjected
traditional African communities to unimaginable brutality.” An
example is the terror inflicted by Hamman Yaji, a particularly
ruthless jihadist (1912-27), in north-eastern Nigeria: “On one
raid Hamman Yaji’s soldiers cut off the heads of the dead pagans
in front of [the palace], threw them into a hole in the ground, set
them alight and cooked their food over the flames. Another time
they forced the wives of the dead men to come forward and collect their husbands’ heads in a calabash.”34
These militant campaigns against traditional people groups,
10
particularly in the Middle Belt of Nigeria, continued well into
the late 1950s. In these campaigns, the jihadists were echoing
the traditional Muslim teaching that unbelievers were essentially
enemies of Islam and should not rule over Muslims. They should
be fought, killed, enslaved or subjugated by Muslims.35
Sudan is another African country that has experienced horrific consequences of an Islamic jihad. The National Congress
(formerly National Islamic Front) which controls the government of Sudan (led by Lieutenant General Omar Hassan AlBashir) treats Islam as a state religion that must undergird all
laws, institutions and policies. For example, while non-Muslims may convert to Islam, conversion from Islam to another
religion is punishable by death. Over 70% of the Sudanese are
Sunni Muslims who are concentrated in the north. The remainder, comprising about 19% Christians and 10% adherents of tribal
religions, live in the south or in the Nuba mountains in central
Sudan.
The US Department of State Religious Freedom Report on
Sudan for 2001 estimates that some 2 million people have been
killed or have died of starvation and 4 million have been displaced since 1983. The government-declared jihad against the
south has resulted in killings, abductions and rapes, the burning
and looting of villages, and the bombing of schools, hospitals
and markets.36
Government and associated forces in Sudan routinely kill
people or take them to “peace camps”, where children are removed from their parents and sent elsewhere for indoctrination
into Islam. The young men are trained as soldiers and sent back
to fight the South. Young women and girls are forced to labour
on farms and are frequently raped by their captors. When food
is scarce in the camps, only those who have converted to Islam
are given enough to eat.37
Islamic Shari‘ah law
The prime objective of a jihad campaign is to bring a community or state under Islamic or shari‘ah law. At the practical
level, the most important and comprehensive element of Islam is
the shari‘ah, which literally means “path to a water place”, ie to
the source of life. Thus the shari‘ah is understood by Muslims
as the path of righteous living that leads to Paradise.
Every Muslim has an obligation to Allah “to act as his
viceregent on earth, ordering the good and forbidding wrong
(Qur’an 3:104 and 3:110). In other words, it is a duty to accept
responsibility for the establishment of proper public order. The
law, as the concrete expression of Allah’s will and guidance, is
therefore central to the individual and collective Muslim
identity.”38
Shari‘ah law is based on four principles or “roots of the law”:
the Qur’an, the Prophet’s sunnah, reasoning and consensus.
Regarding the first two principles, “if a belief, a practice, or a
point of law has been clearly enunciated in a text of the Qur’an
or the Prophetic sunnah, it must be accepted as absolutely binding.” The third principle, of reasoning, means that an issue not
directly covered in the Qur’an or sunnah may be settled by analogical reasoning from similar cases. The fourth principle, of
consensus, is the most important in practice and refers to general acceptance of a new idea or law by the Muslim community.39
No separation is made between moral and legal obligations or
between theology and law.
The importance of shari‘ah law to Muslims is evident from
the establishment of The Shari’ah Court of the UK by British
Muslims associated with the extreme Islamist organisation AlMuhajiroun and the Society of Muslim Lawyers. Although this
so-called “court” has no legal standing in UK, its judge, Omar
Bakri Muhammad, issued a fatwa (judgement) in 1999 sentencing to death Terrence McNally, author of the blasphemous play
Corpus Christi.40 This fatwa has no effect, but could incite some
Muslims to try to execute McNally.
Shari‘ah law applies differently to Muslims, dhimmi (such as
Jews and Christians), and slaves.
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Light, February 2002
Any non-Muslim is free to become a Muslim but not vice
versa. From early times it has been taught that the penalty for
the apostasy of any individual from Islam is death. While the
Qur’an condemns those who forsake Islam, warning that they
will incur the wrath of Allah, it does not command death.41 The
death penalty is obligatory nevertheless by the second principle
of shari‘ah, the Prophet’s sunnah, recorded in the haddith, for
example: “Zaid b. Aslam reported that the Apostle of Allah (may
peace be upon him) declared that the man who leaves the fold of
Islam should be executed.”42 Islamic history shows that this penalty has often been enforced, occasionally by public authority but
usually by relatives and others taking the law of Islam into their
own hands.
The status of dhimmi (or “protected minority”) protects a
person’s life, property and religious practices in return for payment by every male adult of a poll-tax or tribute (jizyah). This
tax, however, is the real mark of subjugation to the Muslim authorities and avoidance of its social stigma is a strong incentive
to conversion. As the Qur’an (9:29) says, “Fight against such of
those to whom the Scriptures were given as ... do not embrace
the true Faith [Islam], until they pay tribute out of hand and are
utterly subdued.”
The inferior status of the dhimmi is reinforced through other
shari‘ah regulations. Dhimmis are forbidden to touch a Muslim
woman (though a Muslim man can take a non-Muslim as a wife).
They are excluded from public office and are forbidden to bear
arms. Dhimmis are not allowed to give evidence in court against
a Muslim. To defend himself, the dhimmi would have to purchase Muslim witnesses at great expense. This leaves the dhimmi
with little legal recourse when harmed by a Muslim. Dhimmis
have also been forced to wear distinctive clothing. In the ninth
century, for example, Baghdad’s Caliph al-Mutawakkil designated a yellow badge for Jews, setting a precedent that would be
followed centuries later in Nazi Germany.43
Muslims sometimes claim that islam means peace. However, the “peace” envisaged is submission to shari‘ah law,
achieved if necessary by jihad.44
References
1. Peter Finn, “A Fanatic’s Quiet Path to Terror”,
Washington Post, 22 September 2001, p A1.
2. Ibid.; Qur’an 6:162.
3. Ladenese Epistle: Declaration of War against
Americans occupying the Land of the Two Holy
Places, 23 August 1996, published in Londonbased Arabic newspaper Al Quds Al Arabi, translated by the Committee for the Defense of Legitimate Rights, a pro-bin Laden organisation, and
posted on the Internet in October 1996.
4. “Hidden enemy, Al Qaeda’s mission of terror”,
Defence Information Bulletin, November 2001,
Defence Public Affairs, Canberra, Vol 4, No 7,
p 10.
5. Ladenese Epistle, loc.cit.
6. “Islam, History of”, Encyclopaedia
Britannica, Macropaedia, 15th Ed, 1973, Vol 9,
p 927.
7. David Waines, 1995, An Introduction to Islam, Cambridge University Press, Chapter 1
“There is no god but Allah ...”
8. Qur’an, 4:74.
9. John Gilchrist,“The Founder of Islam At Medina”, Muhammad and The Religion of Islam,
Answering Islam, answering-islam.org/Gilchrist/
Vol1/index.htm.
10. John Gilchrist, loc. cit., “The Conflict with the
Jews”.
11. John Gilchrist, loc. cit., “The Conquest of
Mecca and the Final Triumph”.
12. David Waines, loc cit., pp 30 and 89-93.
13. David Waines, loc cit., p 100.
14. John Alembillah Azumah, 2001, The Legacy
of Arab-Islam in Africa: A Quest for Inter-religious Dialogue, (Oxford: Oneworld Publications),
p 66; the dissident group was called the seceders
Light, February 2002
Conclusion
The jihad, or holy war against infidels, lies at the heart of
Islam. Muhammad used the jihad to establish the earliest
Muslim communities, first at Medina and subsequently at
Mecca. The Qur’an instructs Muslims time and again to use
the jihad to bring unbelievers into submission to Allah. The
early Caliphs, who led the Muslim community following
Muhammad’s death, used the jihad to conquer neighbouring
Arab regions.
During the centuries that followed, the remarkable expansion
of Islam into North Africa and Europe achieved through the
jihad threatened the survival of Christian Europe. Today,
Islamic jihad campaigns continue and are currently being waged
in Afghanistan, southern Sudan, northern Nigeria, eastern
Indonesia and other countries. Throughout its 14 century
history, Islam’s borders have always been bloody.
Islam is essentially a community or nation, not just a religion
as understood in the Western world. No distinction is made in
Islam between political, military and religious leadership Muhammad and the Caliphs who followed him exercised all
three roles.
This union of religion, politics and military action is achieved
through shariah law. Hence the introduction and preservation
of shariah law has always been a central objective of Muslims.
Shariah law assigns different rights to different people groups:
only Muslims have full rights; “People of the Book” including
Jews and Christians are subjugated with limited rights;
unbelievers or idolaters are enslaved (or killed).
Islamic thought divides the world into two distinct camps:
the House of Islam where shariah law applies and the House of
War elsewhere. As the name implies, the House of War (which
includes the whole Western world) is an inevitable target for
Islamic jihad.
Muslims know of Jesus as God’s prophet, born of the Virgin
Mary, sinless and ascended to heaven to return again. Christians
pray that Muslims may know Jesus as the eternal Word of God
who became flesh and dwelt among us, full of grace and truth,
and who alone offers forgiveness and true peace.
(khawarij).
15. The three kinds: jihad al-sayf (military), jihad
al-qawl (preaching), and jihad al-nafs (personal).
16. J Goldziher, Introduction to Islamic Theology
and Law, trans. Andras and Ruth Hamori
(Princeton: Princeton University Press), pp 1704; cited by Azumah, loc. cit., p 65.
17. Peters, R, Islam and Colonisation - The Doctrine of Jihad in Modern History, (Paris and New
York: Mouton Press), p 10; cited by Azumah, loc.
cit., p 66.
18. John Azumah, loc. cit., p 66.
19. House of Islam (dar al-islam), and the House
of War (dar al-harb).
20. John Azumah, loc. cit., p 67.
21. S. Abu ‘Ala Mawdudi, 1980, Jihad in Islam,
3rd ed, (Lahore: Islamic Publications), p 5; cited
by John Azumah, loc. cit., p 67.
22. John Azumah, loc. cit., p 68.
23. Ladenese Epistle, 1996, loc.cit., quoting Muslim authority Saheeh Al-Jame’ As-Sagheer.
24. David Waines, loc cit., p 155.
25. “Islam, History of”, loc. cit., p 928.
26. David Waines, loc cit., p 100.
27. David Waines, loc cit., p 46.
28. David Waines, loc cit., p 207-8.
29. David Waines, loc cit., Ch 5 “The way of the
Sufi”.
30. John Azumah, loc. cit., p 201; “Tune into the
new conscience of Islam”, UNECSO Courier, November 2001.
31. Kameel Majdali, “Clash of Civilizations”, Alive
Magazine, March 2002, p 50.
32. “Ottoman Empire and Turkey, History of the”,
Encyclopaedia Britannica, Macropaedia, 15th Ed,
1973, Vol 13, pp 776-779.
33. John Azumah, 2001, loc. cit., Ch 3 “Muslim
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jihad and Black Africa”.
34. J H Vaughan, and Anthony H M Kirk-Greene,
1995, The Diary of Hamman Yaji: A Chronicle of
a West African Muslim Ruler, (Bloomington: Indiana University), pp 13-14; cited by Azumah, 2001,
loc. cit., p 92.
35. John Azumah, 2001, loc. cit., pp 92, 95.
36. International Religious Freedom Report on
Sudan, 2001, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights
and Labor, US Department of State, www.state.gov/
g/drl/rls/irf/2001/5680.htm.
37. Human Rights Report, Christian Persecution
in Sudan, International Christian Concern,
www.persecution.org/humanrights/sudan.html.
38. David Waines, loc cit., p 63.
39. “Islam”, Encyclopaedia Britannica,
Macropaedia, 15th Ed, 1973, Vol 9, p 921.
40. Audrey Gillan, “Muslim death sentence on
playwright”, The Guardian, Saturday 30 October
1999; Charity Commission for England and Wales
report on The South London Middle Eastern and
South Eastern Asian Women’s Issues charity,
www.charity-commission.gov.uk/investigations/
inquiryreports/ mesea.asp.
41. See, for example, Qur’an 2:217 and 16:106.
42. Muwatta Imam Malik, p 317; cited by John
Gilchrist, loc. cit., “The Consequences of Apostasy From Islam”.
43. Bat Ye’or, The Dhimmi: Jews and Christians
under Islam, 1985, (NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press), pp 30, 56-57, 185-86, 191, 194.
44. See, for example, the interview of the official
spokesman for the Taliban, Ma’soum Afghani,
“Our goal is to restore peace and establish a pure
and clean Islamic state in Afghanistan”, published
in the 18th issue of Nida’ul Islam magazine
(www.islam.org.au), April-May 1997.
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