Download the transformation of the west, 1450 - 1750

THE TRANSFORMATION
OF THE WEST, 1450 - 1750
An Era of Revolutions
TWO RENAISSANCES
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Italian Renaissance
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Renaissance, or rebirth of art and learning, 1350-1600, based on Greece and Rome
Aristocrats, popes, nobles became wealthy patrons and tried to outdo one another
City-states sponsored innovations in art and architecture
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Macaccio, Leonardo, used linear perspective to show depth
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Sculptors (Donatello and Michelangelo) created natural poses
Renaissance architecture
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Simple, elegant style, inherited from classical Greek and Roman
Magnificent domed cathedrals
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Brunelleschi's cathedral of Florence
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St. Peter’s in Rome
Humanists or Man is the Measure of All Things
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Drew inspiration from classical models especially Greece, Rome
Leading scholars included Dante, Petrarch
Scholars interested in humane letters
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Literature, history, and moral philosophy
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Called humanists
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Recovered and translated many classical works
Attention to political and social issues and graces, too
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Boccaccio’s Decameron
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Castiglione’s The Courtier
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Machiavelli’s The Prince
Northern Renaissance
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Especially strong in France, England, Netherlands
Focus was more on science, math, and Christianity (language favored was Hebrew)
Strongly supported by the middle classes and minor nobles
Leading figures include Shakespeare, Durer, Erasmus, Protestant reformers
PROTESTANT REFORMATION
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Precursors to Luther
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Great Schism
 2/3 popes at same time undermined authority of the church
 Church councils rule/attempt to overrule popes
Jan Hus in Holy Roman Empire and Wycliffe in England
 Both attacked aspects of church corruption, wealth, practices
 Both condemned by Church
 Hus executed, but Wycliffe protected by King of England
 Wycliffe had Bible translated into English
Martin Luther (1483-1546)
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Attacked the sale of indulgences, 1517
Attacked corruption in Catholic Church; called for reform
Argument reproduced with printing presses and widely read
Enthusiastic response from lay Christians, princes, many cities
By mid-16th century, half Germans adopted Lutheranism
Reform spread outside Germany
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Protestant movements popular in Swiss cities, Netherlands
Scandinavian kings like movement as it removes Church as a rival
English Reformation sparked by King Henry VIII's desire for divorce
John Calvin, French convert to Protestantism
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Organized model Protestant community in Geneva in the 1530s
Calvinist missionaries were successful in France
Zwingli leads Calvinist like reformation in Switzerland
John Know leads Presbyterian movement in Scotland
Martin Bucer writes pamphlets, lead to rise of Puritan movement in England
CATHOLIC REFORMATION
 Early Attempts to Reform
 Catholic cardinals, bishops call council in early 15th century
 Council of Constance deposes rival popes
 Attempts to assert authority over pope, initial reforms
 Catholic intellectuals attack Church corruption
 Emperor Sigismund attempts to reform church in Germany
 Church reaction to Luther, Protestants
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Charles V, Church condemn, excommunicate Luther
King Henry VIII condemns Luther
Inquisition unleashed against Protestants
Spanish use wealth to fund anti-Protestants
 The Council of Trent, 1545-1563
 Directed reform of Roman Catholic Church
 Attacked corruption
 Reaffirmed tradition, Bible as co-equal
 The Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
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Founded 1540 by Ignatius Loyola
High standards in education
Combat Protestants with logic, faith, hard work
Saved S. Germany, E. Europe from Protestants
Became confessors, advisories to kings
Worldwide missionaries
RELIGIOUS CONFLICT
 Religious wars
 Between Protestants, Catholics during 16TH century
 Wars as much social, political as religious
 Neither side is innocent of conflict
 Civil war in France
 Between Huguenots (French Calvinists), Catholic League
 Monarchy often a pawn of both sides and nobles
 Lasted thirty-six years (1562-1598)
 Ended with new dynasty
 Protestant provinces of the Netherlands revolted against rule of Catholic Spain
 Originally began as a revolt of all Netherlands against Spain
 Eventually split country into Catholic south (Belgium) and Protestant north (Holland)
 Spanish Armada
 War between Catholic Spain, Protestant England, 1588
 Spill over from conflict in the Netherlands
 Question of heir to English throne: Catholic Scottish Queen or Protestant Elizabeth
 The Thirty Years' War (1618-1648)
 The most destructive European war up to WWI
 Began as a local conflict in Bohemia; eventually involved most of Europe
 Devastated the Holy Roman Empire (German states): lost one-third population
 Saw rise of Sweden as Great Power and eclipse of Spain, Hapsburgs as European
great power
 Saw independence of Holland, Switzerland from Holy Roman Empire
 Ended with Germany neither holy, nor Roman nor an Empire
 Scottish Presbyterians revolt
 Expel Catholic Queen with England’s secret assistance
 Raise her kidnapped son as Presbyterian
NEW RELIGIOUS MAP
SCIENTIFIC REVOLUTION
 The reconception of the universe
 The Ptolemaic universe
 A motionless earth surrounded by nine spheres
 Could not account for observable movement of the planets
 Compatible with Christian conception of creation
 The Copernican universe
 Copernicus suggested sun was center of universe, 1543
 Implied that the earth was just another planet
 The Scientific Revolution
 Science becomes the new authority and challenges faith for control
 Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) demonstrated planetary orbits elliptical
 Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)
 With a telescope saw sunspots, moons of Jupiter, mountains of the moon
 Theory of velocity, falling bodies anticipated modern law of inertia
 Tried by Inquisition as his ideas challenged Papal infallibility
 Isaac Newton (1642-1727)
 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy in 1686
 Mathematical explanations of laws govern movements of bodies
 Newton's work symbolized the scientific revolution
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Direct observation
Mathematical reasoning
ENLIGHTENMENT
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Enlightenment
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Thinkers called philosophes
Sought natural laws that governed human society
Center of Enlightenment was France
Theory of progress was ideology of philosophes
Apply reason/science to society, government, law
Voltaire (1694-1778)
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Champion of religious liberty and individual freedom
Prolific writer; father of Enlightenment
John Locke
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All human knowledge comes from sense perceptions
Life, Liberty and Property; 1689 English Bill of Rights
Allowed persons to revolt against an oppressive ruler
Adam Smith: laws of supply and demand determine price
Montesquieu: checks, balances, balanced government
Deism
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Popular among thinkers of Enlightenment
Accepted existence of a god
Denied supernatural teachings of Christianity
God the Clockmaker
Ordered the universe according to rational and natural laws
Impact of Enlightenment
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Weakened the influence of organized religion
Encouraged secular values based on reason rather than revelation
Subjected society to rational analysis, promoted progress and prosperity
Enlightenment applied science to every day life and made science practical
STATE BUILDING
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Italian city-states
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France and England
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Flourished with industries and trade
Each with independent administration and army
Levied direct taxes on citizens
More powerful absorbed smallest
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Hundred Years' War (1337-1453)
 Fought for control of French lands
 Imposed direct taxes to pay the costs of war
 Central government over feudal nobility
English War of the Roses leads to Tudor Dynasty
Louis XI reduces powers of feudal aristocracy
Spain united
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By marriage of Fernando of Aragon and Isabel of Castile
Sales tax supported a powerful standing army
Conquered Granada from Muslims
Seized southern Italy in 1494
Sponsored Columbus's quest for western route to China
Competition among European states
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Frequent small-scale wars
Encouraged new military and naval technology
Technological innovations strengthened armies
Dynastic Politics
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Constant search for an heir
Must marry for political advantage
Gave women influence as regents, brides, mother of heir
NEW MONARCHS
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New Monarchs
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Taxes, armies as instruments of national monarchies by late fifteenth century
Used feudal powers but added new powers to become dominant in society
Developing towards divine right monarchs answerable only to God, not people
Henry VII of England and Louis XI of France are two best examples
France, England and Spain
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All three united after long wars
Kings have new, broad powers
Nobles often weakened; new nobles created out of middle classes
Enhanced royal, centralized powers
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Wealthy treasuries by direct taxes, fines, and fees
State power enlarged and more centralized
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Standing armies in France and Spain
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Professional bureaucrats loyal only to monarch, not church
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Nobility status often sold to wealthy merchants to raise funds
Reformation increased royal power
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Kings confiscate wealth, land of the Church
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Kings sell off lands to middle class, making them loyal to state
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Even Catholic monarchs tended to follow this trend
New law courts enhance royal power
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Kings tend to function above the law
English Star Chambers – do not require warrants, trials
The Spanish Inquisition, Catholic court of inquiry, founded 1478
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Intended to discover secret Muslims and Jews
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Used by Spanish monarchy to detect Protestant heresy and political dissidents
French Parlements reduced to law courts not legislative assemblies
ATTEMPTED REVIVAL OF EMPIRE
 Charles V
 Reigned 1519-1556
 Holy Roman Emperor
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Austria
Czech lands, Silesia
Hungary, Slovakia,
Slovenia, Croatia
Netherlands
Eastern France
Milan, Northern Italy
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Castile
Navarre
Catalonia
Two Sicilies
Spanish American Empire, Philippines
 King of Spain
 Inherited a vast empire of far-flung holdings through marriage
 Unable to establish a unified state
 Disputes with German nobles, France, and Ottoman Empire
 German nobles resented his power and obstructed his every move
 Many nobles became Protestant as it was a tool against emperor
 Even Catholic nobles supported Reformation as it limited his religious influence
 France opposed Charles and supported Protestants, Charles’ enemies
 Charles main enemy was Ottoman Empire
 France, Protestants and Turks allied against Charles
 Charles forces defeat Turks, block moves; unable to take advantage of strength
CONTITUTIONAL AND
ABSOLUTE MONARCHS
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Constitutional states of England and the Netherlands
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Divine Right Monarchs limited by war, nobles, wealthy
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Powers limited by constitutions, bills of right, convention
No one is above the law, property is protected by law
Representative institutions: rights of oversight, taxation, review, veto
 Prominent merchant classes enjoyed unusual prosperity
 Commercial empires overseas with minimal state interference
Dutch constitutional monarchy evolved out of religious wars
England’s road to rights
 Constitutional monarchy in England evolved out of a civil war
 English Glorious Revolution 1688
 English Bill of Rights 1689
Absolutism in France, Spain, Austria, and Prussia
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Based on the theory of the divine right of kings
 Relied often on bureaucrats, professional armies
 Great trappings of power especially palaces, images
 Restricted power of aristocracy, legislatures and church
 Relied on mercantilism to generate taxable wealth
Spain, Austria united by Hapsburg marriage, inheritance
Cardinal Richelieu
 French chief minister 1624-1642
 Crushed power of nobles
 Supported Protestants, Sweden against Hapsburgs, Spain, Austria
Prussia began to rise in late 17th century
 Based on absolutism and army
 Eventually will unite Germany
LOUIS XIV OF FRANCE
 King of France
 Called the Sun King
 Planets revolve around the sun
 Sun gives light, warmth of the solar system
 Reigned 1643-1715
 Bureaucracy
 Used middle class for professional bureaucrats
 Established intendants tp carry out wishes
 Model of royal absolutism: the court at Versailles
 Nobles reduced to serving king, state
 Became generals, diplomats, ministers
 Lived at Versailles where king spied on them
 Large professional standing army
 Well trained, well paid, well equipped
 Kept, enforced order
 Mercantilism and Colonies
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Minister Colbert was mastermind behind wealth
Promoted economic development: roads, canals
Promoted industry, and exports especially luxuries
Built large French navy and colonies in North America, India
 Rulers in Spain, Austria, Prussia, Russia saw France as model
EUROPEAN STATE SYSTEM
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The Peace of Westphalia (1648)
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Ended the Thirty Years' War
Began system of independent sovereign states
Abandoned notion of religion unity
Did not end war between European states
The balance of power
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No state allowed to dominate others
Diplomacy based on shifting alliances
No permanent alliances
Only permanent interests
Religion unimportant to determining alliances
Destroy no nation
Make no permanent enemies
Military development costly and competitive
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New armaments (cannons and small arms)
New military tactics
Extremely intricate fortifications
Professional navies with modern warships, weapons
China, India, and the Islamic states did not keep apace
Small, well-trained armies become critical
THE NATION-STATE
 Nation-State
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Ethnic group with common language, culture
Shared history, traditions
Shared institutions (faith, politics)
Occupying a common territory
Ruled by a common government
Government’s job
 Insure domestic tranquility and happiness
 Assumed many of the Church’s old social roles
 Multiple ethnic groups destroy nation-state
 Belief in Nation-state became new popular ideology
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Love of your nation above others is nationalism
Originated as an elite idea of the aristocracy, educated elite
Loyalty to state, king more important than loyalty to church, pope
Martin Luther addresses the “German People”
King James, Wycliffe translate Bible into English
French have Joan of Arc fighting for France against English
Scotsmen, English resent Catholic “Romish” influence
Dutch, Portuguese, Catalans revolt against foreign Spanish rule
WAR AND PEACE
POPULATION GROWTH
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Population growth
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American foods improved European nutrition, diets
Increased resistance to epidemics after 1650s
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Life spans increased
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Infant deaths decrease
Population growth
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American food crops improved Europeans' nutrition and diets
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Increased resistance to epidemic diseases after the mid-seventeenth century
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European population increased from 81 million in 1500 to 180 million in 1800
Urbanization
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Rapid growth of major cities: Paris from 130,000 in 1550 to 500,000 in 1650
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Cities increasingly important as administrative and commercial centers
Most dramatic in Ireland, England, Poland, France, Netherlands
Urbanization
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Rapid growth of major cities
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For example, Paris from 130,000 (1550) to 500,000 (1650)
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London, Amsterdam, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Lyons
Cities increasingly important: administrative, commercial, intellectual centers
EARLY CAPITALISM
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Profits and ethics
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Early capitalism
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Medieval theologians considered profit making to be selfish and sinful
Renaissance merchants supported changes, arts becoming influential in society
Protestant Reformation saw profit, success as signs of God’s Favor
Led to increased influence for urban middle classes
Altered rural society
 Improved material standards
 Increased independence of rural workers
Capitalism generated deep social strains
 Bandits, muggers, witch-hunting
 Began to impoverish urban workers
 Pricing Revolutions were common
 Impoverished aristocrats, peasants
 Too much money chasing too few goods
The Price Revolution
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Use of money replaced barter
Imports of gold, silver led to trade imbalances
 Mercantilism demanded payments in gold, silver
 Spain, Portugal did not support manufacturing
 Both countries had to import goods
 Northern Europeans demanded payment in gold, silver
Too much money chasing too few goods
 Inflation resulted
 Peasants, aristocrats
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On fixed incomes
Payment in kind economies suffered
 Inflation drove real wages down
GRAPHS OF THE DISASTER
COMMERCIAL REVOLUTION
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The nature of capitalism
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Supply and demand
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Merchants built efficient transportation and communication networks
New institutions and services: banks, insurance, stock exchanges
Joint-stock companies
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Dutch East Indies, English East/West Indies Companies
Organized commerce on a new scale
Authorized to explore, conquer, colonize distant lands
Rise of Manufacturing
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Private parties sought to take advantage of free market conditions
Economic decisions by private parties, not by governments or nobility
Forces of supply and demand determined price
New managerial skills and banking arrangements arose
Colonial markets, population stimulated manufacturing
Putting-out system of 17th and 18th centuries
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Entrepreneurs bypassed guilds
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Moved production to countryside
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Rural labor cheap, cloth production highly profitable
Capitalism actively supported by governments
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Especially in England and Netherlands
Chartered joint-stock companies
Protected property, upheld contracts, settled disputes
Adam Smith and The Wealth of Nations
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Considered the founding father of capitalism
Society would prosper as individuals pursued their own interests
States were to support private interests, free trade
MORE CHANGES
 Mass Culture Arises
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Nationalism, national faiths arise embracing all
Use of some luxuries becomes common
Rise of leisure time even for poorer peoples
Rise of professional entertainment
Immigration by commoners to colonies
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New technologies applied to farming
Draining swamps, animal breeding
New tools to increase productivity
Introduction of new world crops, i.e. potato
 Agriculture changes
 Manufacturing
 Mass produced items common: textiles, metal products
 Capitalism stimulates production as profitable
 New jobs caused people to move into manufacturing from agriculture
 New Social Classes
 Rise of entrepreneurial class with great wealth
 Rise of a technological managerial class
SOCIAL CHANGE, SOCIAL PROTEST
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Rise of urban, rural working class
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Population growth
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Urbanization increased tensions
Growth increased poverty
Social Tensions
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Referred to as proletariat
Paid low wages in horrible conditions
At mercy of price revolutions
Many peasants reduced to paid wages
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Peasant revolts especially during Reformation
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In France, Germany rose against landlords
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Many sought more radical forms of Protestantism
Urban citizens also tended towards Protestantism
Persecution of witches
Elite and Mass Culture
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Prior to Reformation, there were two cultures, elite and common
Two rarely intermixed or cooperated
Mass culture such as entertainment
Faith often became elite culture
The nuclear family strengthened by capitalism
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Families more independent economically, socially, and emotionally
Love between men and women
Parents and children became more important
GENDER ISSUES
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Renaissance saw expansion of women’s rights
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Reformation took back many of the rights
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Books written for women
Education of women allowed
Women could enter public arena as intellectuals
Artesmia Gentileschi was a painter
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Many reformers were women
 Many threatened males traditional roles
 Margaritte of Navarre, Elizabeth of England
Protestants emphasized family role of women
Witch-hunts in Europe
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Theories, fears of witches intensified in 16th century
Reformation fed hysteria about witches and devil worship
About sixty thousand executed, 95 percent of them women
Commercial, Capitalist Revolution
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Women needed often to support family by outside work
Many women merchants very successful
Women assumed new economic roles
Education and Women
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Education was one of few avenues open to women
Aristocratic women often educated
Enlightenment saw first major victories for women’s rights
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Women ran intellectual salons of France
Many very prominent as philosophes: Madame de Stael
Some few feminists appeared